The 1990s

One of Alpha Phi Alpha’s primary projects in the early 1990s focused on erecting a monument of Brother Martin Luther King, Jr. in Washington, D.C.1 Congressman Julian Dixon introduced a joint resolution to build the monument.2 In his proposal to Congress, Dixon stated that it would be fitting for visitors to Washington, D.C. to pay their respects to Brother King and noted that this would be the first monument of an African American in Washington, D.C.3 Alpha Phi Alpha agreed to finance the entire project and there were 115 sponsors of the legislation.4 When the proposed legislation progressed into the House Subcommittee on Libraries and Memorials, it failed to approve the legislation.5 Over the next ten years, Alpha Phi Alpha worked to receive approval from the National Capital Planning Commission and the National Capital Memorial Commission.6 However, the Fraternity had not yet received Congressional approval to raise money to build the monument.7 Finally, twelve years after the Fraternity proposed this legislation, President Bill Clinton signed the bill authorizing Alpha Phi Alpha to begin its fundraising campaign.8 Because securing authorization to fundraise was the Fraternity’s primary goal at that point in time, Alpha Phi Alpha was able to shift its focus on efforts to locate a site and finalize a design for the monument.9

One of the prominent, substantive issues for Alpha Phi Alpha was the proposed Civil Rights Act of 1990. This Act relieved some of the burdens that made it difficult for women and minority groups to succeed in employment discrimination lawsuits.10 President George H. W. Bush vetoed the legislation and the Senate failed to override the veto by a single vote.11 Across the sea, Alpha Phi Alpha’s contributions to ending the apartheid during the 1980s, and early 1990s, also extended to unwavering support of Nelson Mandela.12 In August 1990, the General Convention was scheduled to be held in Miami.13 Mandela had recently visited Miami Beach and, during that visit, several former mayors of Miami signed a petition condemning him for failing to denounce human rights violations in Cuba.14 When the convention took place, all people who protested Nelson Mandela’s visit to Miami were removed from the attendance sheet and the Fraternity issued a press release asking all human rights and equality organizations to reassess whether they wanted to hold conferences in Miami.15 Alpha  Phi Alpha’s public policy statement that year reminded members about its dissatisfaction with the city of Miami for its disrespect of Mandela and asked the United States to pressure South Africa to end the apartheid.16 During the 1990 convention, the public policy statement highlighted the need for members of the executive and legislative branches to support judges who not only represented the diversity of the United States, but who could also adapt to the social and political changes occurring at the time.17 At the Eighty‐Fourth Anniversary Convention in 1990, the two primary issues confronting the Fraternity were the intake process and progress on the new national headquarters.18 At the time, despite breaking ground, the Fraternity had not entered into any contracts to construct the headquarters and had significantly less capital than was necessary to complete the building.19 Some brothers even questioned whether the headquarters project should continue on.20

On the chapter front, in the Eastern Region, Beta Chapter (Howard University) celebrated Marcus Garvey, held a blood drive, tutored elementary students, and hosted lectures on Egyptology and African American culture.21 Sigma Chapter (Boston University, Harvard University, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology) supported the South African struggle, participated in a campaign with the Northeastern University Religious Life Office and representatives of Oxfam America to increase consciousness of the ongoing struggle of Africans in Namibia and all of South Africa, and motivated activism against apartheid. The chapter worked to feed the homeless in Boston, spent time tutoring high school students, and participating in activities to promote education.22 Eta Chapter (Columbia University) worked with students in an “I Have A Dream” program, held a clothes drive for the Salvation Army, sponsored participation in March of Dimes Walk‐ A‐Thon, and participated in a Stop the Violence March highlighting recent violent crimes against teens. The chapter advocated for spreading the word for a boycott against TROOP (Total Rulers of Oppressed People), and supported the campaign of New York City’s mayoral candidate Brother David Dinkins. 23

Alpha Gamma Chapter (Brown University) conducted a voter registration drive with the Rhode Island League of Women Voters as part of A Voteless People are a Hopeless People program. The chapter also served meals to needy citizens in Providence, participated in a children’s program at a local settlement house whose mission was to keep youth away from drugs, and conducted a forum on relationships between African American men and women.24 Alpha Psi Chapter (Lincoln University) held the Food Drive ’89 for needy families to the holidays.25 Delta Epsilon Chapter (University of Buffalo) worked with the United Way and high school students with learning disabilities. The chapter’s Student Organization helped with children, running games and speaking about drug abuse. The chapter also worked with Buffalo Kids Day selling newspapers for muscular dystrophy. It also awarded scholarships.26 Gamma Sigma Chapter (Delaware State College) worked over the holiday season with the Salvation Army in Dover, Delaware, collecting money for the needy. The chapter held a week‐long Alpha Week program with a campaign that focused on drugs, alcohol and sexual awareness with the Delaware Rural Ministries. The chapter also held a blood drive, an Easter egg hunt for three to five year olds attending a kindergarten lab at the University, participated in the Alpha Angels’ activities to raise money for scholarships, and held the Delaware State Annual High School day with its message to avoid drugs and stay in school and go to college. 27

Alumni chapters also continued the work of Alpha. Epsilon Gamma Lambda Chapter (Boston, Massachusetts) participated in events for March of Dimes and the Educational Foundation, and held a picnic at an Air Force base.28 Delta Lambda Chapter (Baltimore, Maryland) honored a woman who provided food and clothing to the homeless in Baltimore, held a tennis tournament to raise funds for the Boy Scouts and the Bea Gaddy Shelter for the homeless.29 Xi Alpha Lambda Chapter (Prince William County, Virginia) provided support for the Saunders B. Moon Community Action Agency which promotes needed social services to residents in the Gum Springs area of Fairfax County. The chapter worked closely with the Special Olympics, established programs to feed homeless women, participated in the National Food Bank to distribute food to the needy and provided scholarships to young Black men and women.30

Zeta Phi Lambda Chapter (Stamford, Connecticut) reached out to visit local high schools to encourage students to “set the proper course for their futures.” The chapter also held fundraisers for scholarships. 31 Beta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Richmond, Virginia) awarded scholarships to local high school students in the “Finish‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College” program. 32 Omicron Lambda Alpha Chapter (Washington, D.C.) worked to revitalize and renew their community involvement to “increase our effectiveness and influence in a community which disparately needs positive Black male role models to guide our troubled youth.” The chapter worked closely with various community and educational institutions to keep local youth on the right track and away from the influence of drugs and gang violence. Working with Redskins quarterback’s Douglas Williams Foundation, the chapter participated with the Leadership Skills Training Program by going to high schools to talk to students about the value of education. The chapter participated in holiday programs for homeless families, as well as the Youth At Risk program which provided a retreat for troubled youth, a March of Dimes event, and conducted a voter registration drive and a Thanksgiving food drive. 33

Beta Gamma Chapter (Virginia State College) joined with Nu Lambda Chapter (Petersburg, Virginia) and Nu Omicron Chapter (Carroll College) to present a Drug Awareness Education Program for high school students to combat the use of drugs, screened the film The White Girl hosting 1500 students and 1000 parents, and then conducted breakout sessions on the subject of drug awareness.34 Omicron Eta Lambda Chapter (Washington, D.C.) volunteered at Martha’s Table for a food and clothing drive for the homeless and worked with troubled junior high school students. The chapter also participated in a March of Dimes (Project Alpha) conference for young men discussing adolescent pregnancies and male responsibility. Brothers mentored and set positive role models for youth and worked with the Boy Scouts. Two high school students were sent to the Eastern Regional Leadership Institute at Howard University.35 Alpha Omicron Lambda Chapter (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) contributed to charitable community organizations including a United Negro College Fund Drive, the Urban League Membership Drive, a Boy Scout workshop, and a camping program at the YMCA. The chapter conducted a voter registration drive in predominantly black wards with the Pittsburgh Urban League, solicited members for the N.A.A.C.P., and awarded scholarships.36

Zeta Lambda Chapter (Newport News, Virginia) awarded scholarships and support for community youth programs and  instituted tutorial services for children.37 Eta Theta Lambda Chapter (Freeport, New York) held the annual college tour to the campuses for twelve historically black colleges and universities, sponsoring 122 African American and Latino high school students to acquaint students with HBCUs, then assisted them with attaining maximum standardized test scores, and later debriefed them on their visits. The chapter also conducted workshops on relationships.38 Beta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Richmond, Virginia) sponsored a program “A Man‐to‐Man Talk About Teen Pregnancy.”39 Alpha Theta Lambda Chapter (Atlantic City, New Jersey) awarded scholarships and participated in the Fraternity’s Go‐ To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program.40 Rho Lambda Chapter (Buffalo, New York) held a Leadership Development Institute: Local Program for eighteen students and awarded eight scholarships. The chapter supported the United Negro College Fund.41

In the Southern Region, Delta Psi Chapter (Florida Memorial College) held the program African Americans in Pursuit of Excellence.42 Omicron Kappa Chapter (Auburn University) held a Halloween party at a local nursery school, collected canned goods for Thanksgiving for the needy, and visited a junior high school speaking with students about drug abuse, sexuality, and personal relationships. The chapter conducted a Public Forum with events targeting minority students at the Fourth Annual Outreach Workshop attended by local professionals addressing area youth.43 Kappa Omicron Chapter (Duke University) participated in the Durham Centerfest, an arts festival, and in a car wash for Durham high school, and sponsored a blood drive.44 Delta Gamma Chapter (Alabama A & M University) participated in a tutorial program with one‐on‐one weekly sessions at local elementary schools with the help of a professor of education in reading, math, and science. The Project Alpha held ten workshops.45

Beta Epsilon Chapter (North Carolina A & T State University) held Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College events, sessions of drug and substance abuse, and provided an anti‐drug/pro‐education message through rap sessions at Greensboro High School with a modified message to elementary schools.46 Beta Nu Chapter (Florida A & M University) conducted two civic projects per week, held an annual voter registration drive, a blood drive and an STD day. The chapter participated in a gospel concert, promoted an anti‐apartheid message and worked in local neighborhoods.47 Theta Gamma Chapter (University of South Florida) held an event for Sickle Cell Anemia, raised funds for book scholarships for needy students, and established an Upward Bound program during the summer months to bring promising African American students to the University to take classes and be exposed to college experiences.48 Kappa Eta Chapter (Memphis State University) held a memorial service in celebration of establishing Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday as a national holiday which was sponsored by Generation Push–Memphis.49 Pi Alpha Chapter (Clemson University) held fundraisers.50

College Chapter of the Year, Mu Alpha Chapter (Emory University), was active in Project Alpha: The Black Male and Teenage Pregnancy, Assault on Illiteracy at the Jones Boys Club, an N.A.A.C.P. membership drive, the Jerry Lewis Muscular Dystrophy Telethon, the Heart Fund, Play‐day in the Park for Underprivileged Children, The American Red Cross Blood Drive, the Martin Luther King, Jr. national holiday march, the Atlanta Community Food Bank, the Jamaican Relief Fund, Atlanta Hunger Walk, the Big Brothers Big Sisters, Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College, a homeless shelter, and Stoop for Sickle Cell Anemia and the Emory Key Walk.51 Delta Xi Lambda Chapter (Orlando, Florida) held a Martin Luther King, Jr. observation where scholarships were awarded.52 Nu Upsilon Chapter (University of Mississippi) fundraised for the Oxford (Mississippi) Food Pantry and collected canned goods. They participated in a Project Alpha program for high school students, a blood drive and also visited a convalescent home.53

Delta Beta Chapter (Bethune‐Cookman College) held a blood drive, a voter registration drive, an N.A.A.C.P. membership drive and held leadership seminars.54 Alpha Omicron Chapter (Johnson C. Smith University) participated in a local Big Brothers Big Sisters program with elementary school students in Charlotte, North Carolina.55 Iota Eta Chapter (Mercer University) provided leadership and financial assistance for the Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program, participated in a fundraiser for the American Diabetes Association, worked at the United Cerebral Palsy telethon, and participated in the Big Brothers Big Sisters Easter egg hunt for neighborhood children. The chapter also worked on the Project Alpha Teen Pregnancy Prevention Campaign on a Halloween Carnival and tutored at the Boys Club of Macon.56 Gamma Phi Chapter (Tuskegee University) held a National Quiz Bowl, a competition for students at historically black colleges and universities sponsored by American Honda. 57

Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia—Alumni Chapter of the Year) participated in a Project Alpha program for six years with 500‐ 600 African American males annually. The chapter provided funding for the Education Foundation, March of Dimes, and the Metro Atlanta Community Foundation, held a conference on male involvement for the Responsible Decision Making Education Committee, counseled students on financial aid, and was active in the Black History Month program and the Leadership Development Citizenship Educational Institute with 150‐200 students receiving training on public speaking. The chapter also had an alliance with the Boy Scouts to support a troop.58

Beta Beta Lambda Chapter (Miami, Florida) awarded college scholarships, distributed food to the poor, donated to the United Negro College Fund, and held an observation for Martin Luther King, Jr.59 Delta Kappa Lambda Chapter (Florence, South Carolina) conducted an outreach program with workshops to promote the positive qualities and attributes of young black males.60 Psi Lambda and Eta Phi Chapters (Chattanooga, Tennessee) came together in clubs and community groups to serve as role models, mentors, and benefactors of African American youth.61 Epsilon Mu Lambda Chapter (Pensacola, Florida) held the first Project Alpha Workshops for young men aged eleven to eighteen, which included a film on STDs, followed by a question and answer session with MDs and a local judge.62 Epsilon Pi Lambda Chapter (Ocala, Florida) awarded scholarships.63

Epsilon Rho Lambda Chapter (Fayetteville, North Carolina) responded when local flash floods caused $10M damage and affected 150 homes and businesses in the predominantly African American neighborhoods of the city, with search and rescue held. The chapter adopted a family whose home was affected, providing assistance with housing and basic needs.64 Beta Delta Lambda Chapter (Daytona Beach, Florida) held a Citizenship Education, Leadership Development workshop for high school students and gave a tour of Bethune‐ Cookman College. The chapter established a Unity and Sharing Project to provide Thanksgiving baskets for low and moderate income families.65 Tau Lambda Chapter (Nashville, Tennessee) supported the Council of Community Service and Reading is Fundamental to collect 20,000 new books to distribute to young children to encourage reading. The chapter held fundraisers for the United Negro College Fund, Meharry Medical College, the American Baptist College, and a local community center. The chapter also participated in Each One Must Teach One (with the philosophy of each person helping others in the community), a Black History Observation, and an exhibit of art by local black artists. The chapter hosted a speaker who urged brothers to continue to be a catalyst for change especially considering the drop in college graduation, the rise in the homeless, the disproportionate number of African Americans with AIDS, and the rise in the prison population.66

Beta Nu Lambda Chapter (Charlotte, North Carolina) held a Project Alpha seminar focusing on students staying in school, avoiding teen pregnancies and drugs.67 Alpha Nu Lambda Chapter (Tuskegee, Alabama) participated in an Outreach Program which delivered food and clothes for the holidays and to take seniors on shopping trips. Brothers served as African American role models for young men in the community.68 Omicron Iota Lambda Chapter (Columbia, South Carolina) volunteered at the Greater Columbia Assault on Illiteracy Program meeting with students two times a month to assist with standardized test preparation. The chapter organized oratorical contests for students, sponsored a Martin Luther King, Jr. 5K Run/2K Fun Walk, and raised funds for the South Carolina Fire Marshall’s Association to assist in enhancing safety in low income housing.69 Alpha Upsilon Lambda, Beta Upsilon, and Omicron Alpha Chapters (Montgomery, Alabama) held an event with a speaker that highlighted the history of the Fraternity, as well as its education program Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐To‐College and its Education for Citizenship program.70 Mu Zeta Lambda Chapter (Lakeland, Florida) hosted an Alpha Greek Day for Kids providing cultural awareness for youth as well as information about drugs. The High School Achievement Awards Program awarded scholarships to African American seniors.71

Gamma Mu Lambda Chapter (Tallahassee, Florida) sponsored two high school students to attend the Alpha South Regional Leadership Program at Fisk University. The chapter revitalized the Go‐ To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College Campaign to motivate African American youth to graduate from high school and go to college. Monthly workshops on communication skills, test taking, and leadership development were held. The chapter also participated in the Council of Neighborhood Associations, volunteered at a United Negro College Fund telethon with the money raised going to Big Brothers Big Sisters, donated to the March of Dimes Walk America campaign, hosted 200 middle school students for Project Alpha to lecture on the dangers of premature sexual involvement and teen pregnancy. That chapter also participated in a Men’s Day Observation with the City of Tallahassee.72 Epsilon Pi Lambda Chapter (Ocala, Florida) awarded scholarships.73 Pi Lambda Chapter (Little Rock, Arkansas) established the Alpha Tutorial Program to assist seventh and eighth graders in public schools. 74

In the Southwestern Region, Theta Phi Chapter (University of New Orleans) worked with the Milne Boys Home for male youths who had brushes with the law through Project Alpha and conducted a voter registration drive, food drive, and Black History program.75 Beta Phi Chapter (Dillard University) conducted Operation Comeback, a cleaning project to clean up District 8 in New Orleans, held a Sickle Cell Anemia event, and held a chapter Merit Group to emphasize education for high school students.76 Eta Mu Chapter (University of Houston) spent fifty hours tutoring and counseling for Project Alpha at a local community center to reach African American youth, and assisted with the Houston Inner City Nutcracker Project and at the Kashmere Community Center.77

Nu Alpha Chapter (Arkansas Tech. University) ran blood drives, performed skits on alcohol awareness at a local Brownie troop and one for the Walk of Life at an elementary school. The chapter was also part of the Greater Arkansas Cleanup.78 Eta Chi Chapter (Northeast Louisiana University) presented an honorarium celebrating Martin Luther King Jr., marched in the Black History Parade, sponsored a basketball tournament for the Boy Scout Alliance, participated in the Campaign against Drug Abuse, worked on a Halloween project for the Housing Authority, and collected donations for the Sickle Cell Anemia Foundation.79 Epsilon Upsilon Chapter (Southern University) participated in service projects and fundraisers, conducted a voter registration drive, and a Goodwill Industries clothing drive.80 Epsilon Iota Chapter (University of Texas at Austin) awarded scholarships, helped establish a Boy Scout troop in an African American community and participated in Project Alpha program with the March of Dimes.81

Xi Chi Lambda Chapter (Leesville/Fort Polk, Louisiana) held a tribute to Martin Luther King, Jr. with Fort Polk Equal Opportunity, donated to the Fort Polk Red Cross for needy families, donated Thanksgiving goodie baskets to local families, conducted a Founder’s Day program at a local church, spoke at Career Day at a local junior high school, and were volunteer leaders for a Boy Scout Troop.82 Delta Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Shreveport, Louisiana) awarded scholarships to deserving students at the annual Education for Citizenship Program with ninety attending.83 Alpha Eta Lambda Chapter (Houston, Texas) participated in an annual toy drive for the needy, held an Alpha Fly In providing free plane rides driven by African American pilots, and participated in the Alpha Dream Partners Program to provide positive role models where each brother would adopt a high school student to be partnered with for one year.84 Pi Lambda Chapter (Little Rock, Arkansas) supported a voter registration drive, participated in Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐To‐College, and donated to the N.A.A.C.P., the Urban League of Arkansas, the United Negro College Fund, the YMCA and the Sickle Cell Anemia fund.85 Epsilon Phi Lambda Chapter (Port Arthur, Texas) held a reception for the new city manager, an Alpha Phi Alpha brother and adopted two miles of local highway.86

In the Midwestern Region, Epsilon Chapter (University of Michigan) held a successful voter registration drive, hosted a Halloween party for underprivileged children at the Green Glazier Home in Ann Arbor, and also worked with Big Brothers Big Sisters. The chapter held Alpha Week with a Salute to African American women, conducted a bucket drive with little sisters of the Angel Club for the United Negro College Fund, and presented a sexual assault prevention program. Brothers went directly into high schools in the inner city and rural areas.87 Epsilon Phi Chapter (Northern Illinois University) hosted high school students from Springfield, Illinois with the Urban League to provide a view of college life. The chapter cleaned up a local church, visited a home for the elderly, and held a candy drive for the United Negro College Fund.88

Gamma Delta Chapter (University of Arkansas at Pine Bluffs) sponsored a car wash with proceeds going to the Arkansas Children’s Hospital, adopted two miles of highway to be maintained four times a year, participated in the Students’ March Against Illiteracy, held a food drive for the needy during the holidays, visited SCAN House to spend time with abused children, and also spent time in a nursing home and hospital during the holidays.89 Nu Epsilon Chapter (Lewis University) participated in a Meals on Wheels program, delivering hot meals to senior citizens and a clothes drive at a local church. The chapter held Education Day, held bake sales, and held clothes drives for the homeless.90 Iota Rho Lambda Chapter (Pontiac, Michigan) awarded scholarships and acted as role models for local students.91 Kappa Chapter (Ohio State University) held a candlelight vigil for Martin Luther King, Jr. and held oratorical contests for high school students.92 Gamma Rho Chapter (Purdue University) raised funds for the United Negro College Fund, UNICEF, and the Muscular Dystrophy Foundation. The chapter held voter registration drives, Business Encouragement Week, and a Martin Luther King, Jr. candlelight vigil.93

Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) held leadership enhancement seminars and workshops for graduating high school seniors emphasizing spiritual, social, and economic values.94 Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) awarded scholarships to deserving high school students and recognized twenty‐one high school and twenty‐ nine college students for academic excellence. The chapter’s Alpha Library Committee held an academic and cultural enrichment program for minority youth at local branches of the library with reading contests, remedial reading programs, and child abuse prevention information as well as “good English” programs for five to eighteen year olds. The chapter targeted 300 pre‐schools for child abuse prevention programs, providing educational training for parents.95 Eta Tau Lambda Chapter also held the Sixth Annual Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. celebration with a local library and the Akron Urban League. The Project Alpha Committee held its first program for teenaged males at the Summit County Children’s Services Board with four life topics discussed. The chapter also participated in the Police Community Dialogue Program with local youth. A brother of the chapter was an AIDS consultant with the Ohio Board of Health.96 Alpha Zeta Lambda Chapter (Bluefield, West Virginia) had their chapter house designated as an historic landmark in the National Register.97

In the Western Region, Mu Beta Lambda Chapter (Honolulu, Hawaii) was actively involved in church and community projects, assisted the homeless and donated food for the holidays, and participated in the Special Olympics for handicapped children. The chapter celebrated the designation of Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday as a national holiday in the state as a struggle. It also provided scholarships for students at Oahu schools.98 Iota Omicron Lambda Chapter (Colorado Springs, Colorado) awarded scholarships to El Paso County Students.99 Iota Zeta Lambda Chapter (Compton, California) supported the Young Black Scholars program, co‐sponsored Joblink Career events for students, had an alliance with the Boy Scouts, and volunteered at the United Negro College Fund telephone.100 Eta Psi Lambda Chapter (Tucson, Arizona) held a symposium for Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College with the University of Arizona and Pima Community College for 112 African American high school students and parents as well as community leaders. The chapter also joined with the Jack and Jill Club of Tucson for a program for selected young men “Men of Tomorrow” from local high schools.101

Internationally, Theta Theta Lambda Chapter (Frankfurt, Germany) awarded scholarships to local high school students, and hosted a Martin Luther King celebration and the first European Network Council. 102

On the litigation front, in the February 7, 1990 case, Dillard v. Town of Louisville, Brother Julius Chambers represented the parties before the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama. In this case, litigants in voters’ Voting Rights Act case submitted proposed single‐member districts town council plan for court approval. The District Court held that the town which had about 43% African American population complied with the Voting Rights Act by submitting a plan calling for five single‐member town council districts, two of which contained majority African American population, even though one of those districts was split into two noncontiguous portions. The plan was affirmed.103

The court had the responsibility to ensure that the case complied with the law and public policy in regards to the Voting Rights Act of 1965. A redistricting plan was submitted by an Alabama town subsequent to its admission that the present at‐large system used to elect its council members violated Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. One of the majority‐African American districts is “non‐contiguous;” the court found that the town’s proposed remedy is acceptable under section 2. Dillard charged that the at‐large election system impermissibly dilutes the voting power of plaintiff class members, a class composed of Dillard and all African‐American citizens residing in Louisville. If a scheme can be fashioned in which a sufficient majority of the voters in one or more districts belongs to the previously submerged minority group, illegal discriminatory effects of racially polarized voting can be overcome. The court held that the plan proposed by the Town of Louisville was an acceptable remedy for its admitted section 2 violation. It was fair, reasonable, and adequate, and was not illegal or against public policy. It was ordered that Dillard recover reasonable attorney fees from defendants and be allowed, until completion of all Dillard cases, to file a request for attorney fees to be taxed against defendant Town of Louisville.

Brother Julius Chambers represented the parties in the Gonzalez v. Home Insurance Company case before the Second Circuit Court. In this case, Gonzalez and other Hispanic former insurance agents brought action against insurance companies, alleging that the companies discriminated against them on the basis of race, and violated a federal statute prohibiting discrimination in the making and enforcement of contracts. The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York granted judgment on the pleadings in favor of the companies. The Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit held that: (1) Gonzalez’s allegations that after agreement with certain companies was entered into, the companies instituted discriminatory quotas, imposed discriminatory restrictions, and harassed agents, failed to state a claim for relief under the statute; (2) Gonzalez’s allegations that other companies refused to enter into agency contract with the former agents except on racially discriminatory terms states a cause of action under the statute; and (3) on remand, Gonzalez would be entitled to plead additional facts. The judgment was vacated and the case was remanded.

Plaintiffs Edward F. Gonzalez and his wife Ana T. Gonzalez, both Hispanic, were sole stockholders in A.T.G. Agency, Inc. Gonzalez acted as an insurance agent for Home, Home Indemnity, Home of Indiana, and City Insurance. The complainant entered an agency agreement on December 28, 1982 and later filed a complaint that alleged that Home and Home Indemnity imposed conditions and restrictions on Gonzalez that they did not impose on their white agents and treated him unfavorably in comparison, specifically refused to allow Gonzalez to sell “Gold Key,” a premier comprehensive coverage, delayed acting on policies submitted by Gonzalez intentionally, and imposed requirements for minimum premium performance not imposed on white agents. In October 1983, Gonzalez entered into an agency agreement with Home of Indiana and City Insurance which included requirements then‐recently imposed on Gonzalez by Home and Home Indemnity, not imposed on white agents. Gonzalez submitted more than 300 applicants for insurance policies to the defendants, who rejected all but twenty‐three and later canceled or refused to renew nineteen of the twenty‐three policies.

On appeal, Gonzalez argued that the district court should not have dismissed the complaint on the basis of Patterson because Home of Indiana and City Insurance entered into an agency agreement that included overtly discriminatory terms, as Home and Home Indemnity did as well. All four defendants refused to enter into insurance contracts with clients solicited by Gonzalez based on his race. It was concluded that Gonzalez’s first contention had merit and that he should have be allowed to amend his complaint in light of Patterson.

The Court recognized that conduct occurring after the contract’s formation can be used as evidence that a divergence in explicit terms of particular contracts is explained by racial animus, and stated that the critical question under § 1981 is whether the employer at the formation of the contract intentionally refused to enter into a contract with Gonzalez on racially neutral terms. There must have been an opportunity for new and distinct relation between defendant and Gonzalez to constitute an amendment that amounted to the making of a contract within the meaning of § 1981. Gonzalez failed to state a claim because the complaint did not allege that when the defendants entered into agreements with Gonzalez in 1982, they did not insist on any terms that varied from terms with non‐Hispanic agents, rather the complaint was after the 1982 agreement was entered into that Home and Home Indemnity instituted discriminatory quotas, imposed discriminatory restrictions as to the types of insurance to be written, and harassed Gonzalez by delaying action on applications submitted. Although alleged to be discriminatory, the complaint did not like them to the making of the contract; therefore, the district court ruled properly that the allegations did not state a claim under § 1981.

However, with Home of Indiana and City Insurance, they were not parties to the 1982 agreement and had imposed many of the racially discriminatory conditions on Gonzalez before entering into agency agreements in October 1983, where the non‐neutral terms were incorporated into the agreements. Thus, the complaint was sufficient  to prove Home of Indiana and City Insurance entered into an agreement on racially discriminatory terms and relief could be granted under § 1981 and the judgment of district court must be vacated and the matter remanded.104

Brother Julius Chambers represented the parties in the case Missouri v. Jenkins before the Supreme Court. Decided April 18, 1990, state and county taxpayers appealed the judgment of the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri, which established a school desegregation plan and methods by which the plan would be funded. The Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit affirmed in part and reversed in part, and the State filed petition for certiorari. The Supreme Court held that (1) petition for rehearing en banc filed with Court of Appeals, although technically not permitted by Rules of Appellate Procedure, qualified for treatment as petition for rehearing and tolled 90‐day period in which to file petition for certiorari, (2) order imposing increase in property taxes levied by school district to insure funding for desegregation of district’s public schools violated principles of federal/state comity, (3) federal courts could require school districts to levy taxes in excess of limits set by state statute in order to fund school desegregation plans. Affirmed in part, reversed in part, and remanded. Justice Kennedy filed an opinion concurring in part and concurring in judgment which Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices O’Connor and Scalia joined.

In order to combat segregation in public schools in compliance with court directives, Kansas City, Missouri School District (“KCMSD”), sought to enhance quality of schools and attract more white students from the suburbs. The KCMSD’s ability to raise taxes was limited by state law. After determining the District did not have alternative means of raising revenue for the program, federal district judge Clark ordered an increase of local property taxes for 1991 to 1992 fiscal year. Court of Appeals for Eighth Circuit affirmed the decision, but ruled that courts should enjoin state tax laws that prevented the District from raising necessary funds and allow the state to set tax rates.105

The Court held that the District Court “abused its discretion” by imposing a specific tax increase.106 It also held that the modifications of the District Court’s order made by the Court of Appeals satisfied “equitable and constitutional principles governing the District Court’s power.”107 The majority found that court orders directing local governments to levy their own taxes were plainly judicial acts within the power of federal court. When a constitutional justification existed, courts had authority to order tax increases despite statutory limitations. The Supreme Court reasoned that to hold otherwise would fail to take into account the obligation of local governments, under the Supremacy Clause, to fulfill the requirements that the Constitution imposes on them.

In 1990, Brother Julius Chambers represented the plaintiffs in the case Parents for Quality Education with Integration v. State of Indiana before the United States District Court for the Northern District of Indiana. The suit was brought against the school district and state defendants and alleged that Parents for Quality Education with Integration (PQEI) and the other plaintiffs continued to suffer from lingering effects of unlawful racial discrimination in the district’s schools. After PQEI and the school district entered into a consent decree, the State moved for summary judgment. The District Court held that (1) there were issues of fact precluding summary judgment as to whether state policies had reinforced and failed to disestablish racial segregation (2) consent decree did not preclude plaintiffs from obtaining additional relief from state (3) Eleventh Amendment was not jurisdictional bar, and (4) relief against the State was not precluded by agreement between the school district and the United States Department of Education whereby the Department of Education deemed the district to be in full compliance with Title VI of Civil Rights Act of 1964. The motion was denied.

PQEI claimed that state had reinforced racial segregation in city schools by participating in pupil reassignment policies, approving annexed and newly constructed schools that were racially segregated, and failing to take corrective action which is a deprivation of PQEI’s privileges and immunities secured under state and federal law. The State argued that evidence supporting PQEI’s claim was factually insufficient to sustain summary judgment, but PQEI exhibited and purported to show that nearly all new and annexed schools were racially segregated and that the state was aware of the dual system and failed to take corrective action. The State’s motion for summary judgment on the claim was denied.108

Brother Julius Chambers represented the plaintiff in the case Price v. Austin Independent School District (“AISD”) before the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas. A complaint was filed that school district’s adoption of a new student assignment plan and educational excellence plan was done with discriminatory intent. The District Court held that the evidence did not demonstrate that the new plan, with greater emphasis on neighborhood schools, was adopted to discriminate against minority students, despite an increased number of racially identifiable schools. Judgment was entered for the defendants.

Price alleged that action taken by the school board to adopt a new student assignment plan was taken with the intent to discriminate because of race or ethnicity to create racially and ethnically segregated schools in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, Title VI of Civil Rights Act, and Equal Education Opportunities Act of 1974. AISD has been the subject of a  desegregation suit since 1970 and the Fifth Circuit has found that AISD discriminated against African American and Mexican‐American students by intentionally operating a dual school system in violation of federal statutes and the United States Constitution. A Memorandum Opinion and Order was entered by the court on November 5, 1979 to call for the submission of an integrative student assignment plan to the court by January 15, 1980. The 1970 litigation culminated in settlement, with all parties agreeing to a Consent Decree.

The 1980 Consent Decree represented the commitment of the parties to transform the AISD into a unitary school system. The decree provided for the implementation of busing, alteration of attendance‐ zone lines, as well as other integrative actions. The court had jurisdiction under the decree for three years, where after the three years, subsequent to notice and opportunity to object, AISD would be declared a unitary school system and the case would be dismissed. In 1983, Plaintiff‐Interveners filed objections to AISD being declared unitary. All parties filed an Agreed Motion to dismiss on June 14, 1983, but there was a complaint filed by plaintiffs on August 7, 1987 alleging intentional discrimination all across‐the‐board.

The main question presented to the Court was if the Board of Trustees of the AISD, in adopting and implementing an elementary school student assignment plan on April 13, 1987, intended to discriminate against elementary school students because of race and ethnicity. The Court found that Price failed to establish that in adopting the April 13, 1987 student assignment plan and Priority Schools Program the AISD, the AISD Board of Trustees, or Dr. John Ellis acted with intent to discriminate based on race or ethnicity in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The Court also found that the defendants had not violated provisions of Title VI of Civil Rights Act nor the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 in adopting the April 13, 1987 plan and Priority Schools Program.109

Brother Julius Chambers wrote the brief for the plaintiffs in the Spencer v. Casavilla case before the Second Circuit Court. Parents of an African American man who was fatally beaten by whites brought civil rights actions against assailants. United States District Court for the Southern District of New York dismissed the complaint for lack of a federal claim. The Spencers appealed. The Court of Appeals held that the complaint alleging that the private defendants, with racial animus, savagely beat Spencer’s son to death on public streets while he was traveling from one place to another within the state stated a claim for deprivation of the son’s right to travel under the civil rights conspiracy statute.

Spencer was attacked by defendants on the morning of May 28, 1986 where he was punched and kicked, beaten with a baseball bat, and repeatedly stabbed with a knife. He was taken to Coney Island Hospital where he died. The complaint alleged that defendants were hostile and attacked without provocation or justification because of Spencer’s race. It is alleged defendants individually and in concert had deprived Spencer of rights otherwise guaranteed to him by the Civil Rights Act  of 1866, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, and state law.

The district court should not have dismissed the complaint for failure to state a federal claim on which relief may be granted. The complaint was sufficient to allege that defendants deprived Spencer of his constitutional right to travel and hence to give the court subject‐ matter jurisdiction of the action under 1985(3), the judgment must be vacated and the matter remanded for further proceedings. The judgment dismissing the complaint was vacated, and the matter was remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.110

Brother Julius Chambers lost his case before the United States District Court for the District of Columbia in Women’s Equity Action League v. Cavazos. Federal government officers appealed the decision of United States District Court for the District of Columbia that granted injunction and refused to vacate a consent decree containing time frames to process complaints and compliance reviews in connection with civil rights laws prohibiting federal aid to organizations that engage in discrimination. The Court of Appeals vacated and remanded. The District Court granted the motion to dismiss on the basis of lack of standing. Appeal was taken. Court of Appeals reversed and ordered briefs on additional issues. The Court of Appeals held that the Women’s Equity Action League (WEAL) could not maintain action directly against federal government officers charged with monitoring and enforcing funding recipients’ compliance with proscriptions against discrimination.111

The opinion in the case involving discrimination in federally‐ funded educational enterprises was revisited. In a prior opinion, it was held that WEAL had standing to sue, that they satisfied the threshold constitutional (article III) requirement to maintain litigation. Congress had not explicitly or implicitly authorized grand scale action WEAL delineated. The court is compelled to reach this terminal point by path‐ marking decisions made during pendency of litigation. Litigation began in 1970 when African American students attending racially segregated public schools in seventeen states complained of delinquency of Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in enforcing Title VI of Civil Rights Act of 1964.112 The litigation expanded over two decades and encompassed the Department of Education and the Department of Labor in regards to forbidding discrimination on account of race or national origin in any federally‐assisted program. The litigation encompassed additional classes of plaintiffs as well as other statutory civil rights guarantees which is why the district court altered and enlarged the order in 1976 to include the newly‐joined plaintiffs.113

WEAL urged that individual actions against discriminators cannot redress the systemic lags and lapses by federal monitors about which they complain, but similar pleas were rejected in Council of and for the Blind and Coker.114 The suit targeting specific discriminatory acts of fund recipients was the only court remedy Congress had authorized for private parties, situated as WEAL was.115 Instructed by controlling precedent, the court held that generalized action plaintiffs pursued against federal executive agencies lacks requisite green light from the legislative branch. The court did not suggest that such action could not be authorized. Courts, however, may not create the claim for relief on their own initiative because the authority resides in Congress; for these reasons, the district court’s dismissal of WEAL’s complaints was affirmed.116

At the Eighty‐Fifth General Convention, in 1991, the Fraternity dedicated itself to providing support to youth by serving as mentors and role models.117 The Commission on Racial Justice, chaired by Brothers Milton Davis and Ozell Sutton, called the brotherhood of Alpha Phi Alpha to action against the racism that continued to diminish the social and economic opportunities for African Americans. In the Reports of Officers and Committees of the Eighty‐Fifth Anniversary General Convention, Brothers Sutton and Davis stated that the role of the Commission on Racial Justice was to “expos[e] these issues for deliberation and encourag[e] our brotherhood to react both individually and collectively.”118

On the litigation front, Brother Julius Chambers lost his case before the United States District Court in Chisom v. Roemer. Petitioners, representing New Orleans’s African American majority under head plaintiff Chisom, filed action in the District Court against Louisiana Governor Roemer, and state officials, arguing that the state justice election procedure weakened the minority voting power, allegedly violating section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. The 1982 amendment to this Act prohibited any voting procedure which causes minority voters to have less opportunity than the other members of the electorate to participate in the political process, specifically the Louisiana Supreme Court in this case, and to elect representatives of their choice. Discriminatory intent is necessary to prove a violation in section 2, so the District Court ruled against Chisom. Court of Appeals evaluated the case and it was sent back to the District Court to maintain the original ruling based partly on the claim that the 1982 amendment to section 2 of the Voting Rights Act did not apply to the election of judges for the Louisiana Supreme Court. The District Court maintained the original decision and Chisom and the United States appealed. The Supreme Court reserved the judgment, holding that state judicial elections were included within the ambit of the statute. A dissenting opinion by Justice Scalia was filed and Justices Rehnquist and Kennedy joined. Julius Chambers was on brief.119

Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in Gentile v. County of Suffolk. Diners were involved in an altercation with off‐duty police officers. The diners brought a § 1983 action against the county and officers due not only to mismanagement, allowing the county to contest trustworthiness of reports in post‐trial proceedings and violation of state and constitutional rights according to the civil rights action, but also to the evidence of a connection between the Assistant District Attorney and complainants. Gentile and Rydstrom were convicted of assault and robbery after being told they were not criminally liable for their conduct at the diner and none of the four defendant officers were going to press charges or hold neither Gentile nor Rydstrom for questioning. The Internal Affairs Division of County Police Department began an investigation and Gentile and Rydstrom were indicted on robbery and assault. The first trial ended in mistrial and the state trial court dismissed the indictments because retrial was barred by the Double Jeopardy Clause. Later, the Appellate Division, Second Department, reversed this ruling and reinstated indictments. Gentile and Rydstrom sought compensation for damages and were awarded $150,000 in a civil rights action to be paid by the county. The county moved for judgment notwithstanding the verdict. The United States District Court for Eastern District of New York denied the motion. The Court of Appeals held that the District Court’s decision to omit some of the central findings of government investigatory reports and hold evidentiary hearings on admissibility after trial fell within District Court’s discretion and affirmed. Graafeiland filed dissention. There were erroneous evidentiary rulings and an improper charge concerning the county’s responsibility for alleged prosecutorial deficiencies of the District Attorney. The case of judgment should not be permitted to stand. Julius Chambers represented the parties.120

Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the Supreme Court of the United States in Houston Lawyers Association v. Attorney General of Texas. An action was brought alleging that the at‐large method of electing trial court judges in certain Texas counties violated the Voting Rights Act. United States District Court for the Western District of Texas granted relief and appeal was taken. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit reversed, on original submission, and after granting rehearing held that the results test in the Act did not apply to judicial elections. On certiorari, the Supreme Court held that vote dilution provision of the Voting Right Act applied to the election of trial judges. Judgment of Court of Appeals was reversed and remanded. Justice Scalia filed a dissenting opinion.

Petitioners of the Houston Lawyers’ Association, an organization of African‐American attorneys registered to vote in one of the ten counties, and others intervened in support of the original plaintiffs, petitioners in the local chapters of the League of United Latin American Citizens—an organization composed of Mexican‐American and African‐American Texas residents who filed suit in the District Court against respondents alleging that the electoral scheme in the ten counties diluted the voting strength of African‐American and Hispanic voters in violation of section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The District Court ruled in the petitioners’ favor and granted interim relief for the 1990 election. The Court of Appeals reversed, holding that judicial elections were not covered by section 2. A separate opinion concurring in judgment agreed that elections for single‐member offices, such as district judgeships, were exempt from section 2. Julius Chambers represented the parties.121

Brother Julius Chambers and Cleophus Thomas lost their case before the United States District Court of the Northern District of Alabama in Woods v. Ficker. In the July 17, 1991 Woods v. Ficker case, personnel officer at a community college asserted § 1981 and Title VII claims against community college President and Chancellor of Postsecondary Education in Alabama, challenging as discriminatory their failure to advertise campus director position before filling it. After trial comment, the District Court held that: (1) the President and Chancellor were not Title VII “employers”, (2) personnel officer’s Title VII claim was barred by defense of “unclean hands,” (3) personnel officer did not establish intentional discrimination. Judgment for defendants.122 Woods claims that Ficker and Gainous failed to advertise the position of Campus Director before filling it and that this failure not only constituted a violation of Lee v. Macon but was motivated by race, thus constituting a violation of Title VII and of § 1981. Defendants conceded that this particular claim under § 1981 is not defeated by Patterson v. McLean, but they denied they violated Title VII or § 1981, or any decree in Lee v. Macon. They further asserted the Mt. Healthy defense, saying even if the position of Campus Director had been advertised and Woods had been interviewed, Woods would not have been chosen because, assuming arguendo that Woods was qualified, Jarrells was better qualified and therefore, would have been appointed.

Although Woods argues that he was demoted as a result of the merger in 1985, he did not appeal from the merger decree and never collaterally attacked it. Ficker and Gainous had nothing to do with Woods’ initial job assignment under the decree and as to any cause of action which arose in 1985, laches has barred it. Woods complained not that a facially neutral rule adversely impacted African Americans generally, but the general “posting” rule was not uniformly applied or was misapplied in order to discriminate against African Americans. This being a theory of disparate treatment, the court concluded the lack of perfect uniformity in application of a general rule did not rise to the level of intentional discrimination. Ultimately, the court found there was no racial motivation in the decisions which would constitute a violation of the Congressional guarantee in § 1981 that African American citizens shall be afforded the same opportunity as white citizens to contract. Perhaps the Eleventh Amendment protecting the defendants from monetary damages if they were sued in an official capacity could explain why Woods sued them as individuals. A separate decree was entered in favor of both defendants. Julius Chambers represented the N.A.A.C.P. Cleophus Thomas represented the plaintiff.123

At the Eighty‐Sixth Anniversary Convention, Brother Cole focused on the achievements at Dunbar High School, an all‐African American public high school in Washington, D.C. that consistently had the top standardized test scores in the region.124 Dunbar High School graduates attended top colleges and universities and approximately 25% graduated Phi Beta Kappa from their respective institutions.125 In accordance with the goal of furthering educational opportunities, Alpha Phi Alpha opposed the government’s use of education vouchers that widened the racial gap in the public school system.126 The Fraternity asked for equal funding among suburban and urban public schools and for more courses about African American social thought and African American history.127 For Alpha members already enrolled in universities, the Education Committee offered to pay the fees for members who were inducted into select honor societies at their schools.128 The Fraternity also set up grassroots support systems on the ground for youth in high risk areas, such as mentoring sessions at Chicago’s Cabrini Green Public Housing Projects.129 These sessions allowed brothers to speak with residents about their career aspirations and exchange contact information so that they could keep in touch during the academic year.130 The General Convention was not conducted without controversy. Five Hispanic mayors in the Miami area “snubbed” Nelson Mandela because of his ties to Castro, which was a “slap in the face to the African American community.” The brothers of Beta Beta Lambda (Miami, Florida) boycotted Miami tourism but couldn’t move the convention out of the Miami hotel. The Fraternity also held a rally for Haitians who were being held at a local detention center and protested the United States’ immigration policy.131 A policy issue at the forefront of Alpha Phi Alpha’s agenda was crime. More specifically, the Fraternity sought to combat black on black crime.132 During the Eighty‐Sixth Anniversary Convention in 1992, each member in attendance received a bumper sticker that read, “Stop Black on Black Crime.”133 In fact, the 1992 General Convention saw Brothers Davis and Sutton continuing to call on the brotherhood of Alpha Phi Alpha for support in overcoming race‐related issues, such as the Los Angeles race riots and “black on black crime.” The Commission on Racial Justice sought to construct and implement a public program to “Stop the Violence.”134

By 1992, the Fraternity sought to unify behind some of the setbacks that African Americans experienced on civil rights gains and the downturn of the N.A.A.C.P.135 In order to combat political struggles, Brother Davis suggested that Alpha Phi Alpha needed to build its strength both internally and externally.136 In order to build external relations, Brother Davis nominated Brother Derrick Cogburn, a doctoral student at Howard University, to represent the Fraternity at the Third African American Summit in Senegal.137 The goal of the meeting was to build togetherness and unity among the community.138 After the conference, Brother Cogburn wrote an article in The Sphinx that recommended that the Fraternity re‐establish chapters in Africa, especially those countries in which brothers were living in major metropolitan areas.139

The Fraternity’s agenda for the 1990s was to promote the Education Foundation, establish a legislative agenda, and establish programs to significantly impact African American communities and families.140 Indeed, the Fraternity worked with African American males in the national programs Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College, Project Alpha, the Big Brothers Alliance, and Assault on Illiteracy. The Fraternity’s policy was to oppose educational (federally funded) vouchers as they promoted racial divides. The Fraternity supported historically black colleges and universities, universal health insurance, federal loan guarantees for businesses in depressed areas, redevelopment of infrastructure and the creation of a civilian service corps, welfare reform, support of African American family values, and educational funding. Alpha Phi Alpha expressed concern for the lack of humanitarian concern in the country’s Somalia policy and generally criticized the Bush administration’s foreign policy.141

Among college chapters in the Eastern Region, Alpha Chapter (Cornell University) concentrated its efforts on the Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College Campaign, conducted college tours to encourage African American and Hispanic students to attend college by visiting Historical Black Colleges on the East Coast. The chapter worked to raise funds with business sponsorship to celebrate Black Liberation Month with displays of African American triumphs and tragedies. The chapter sponsored weekly film series on Roots to stimulate interest in African American history. The chapter also participated in a blood drive, speaking engagements with elementary schools on the evils of drugs and importance of education, presented national broadcast and forum on the Absence of Men of Color and donated time and money to help in projects in the community.142

Xi Omicron Chapter (University of Delaware) performed weekly tutoring at a neighborhood center, participated in a Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College project, sponsored students at the Eastern Regional Conference at Howard, held monthly clothes drives, helped in a food kitchen for the homeless, held voter registration drives for a Voteless People are a Hopeless People program, and held an open house at the Center for Black Culture.143 Gamma Nu Chapter (Pennsylvania State University) held a blood drive in memory of Martin Luther King, Jr. and sponsored a speech competition on controversial political topics with the winners receiving scholarships. The chapter provided Thanksgiving baskets for the needy, held a Kids Day at a local church, held an information seminar on police brutality in the African American community, and lectures to foster better relationships between the races.144 Delta Epsilon Chapter (University of Buffalo) held an education week with lectures on the African American struggle in the 20th century and participated in a United Negro College Fund telethon.145

Theta Iota Chapter (Virginia Polytechnic University) donated to the N.A.A.C.P., the Cancer Fund, Upward Bound and Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College to establish a presence in a local school. The chapter hosted numerous church services, adopted a stretch of local highway and held a clinic on hypertension, a crippler of African Americans, and provided information on sexual health issues.146 Pi Beta Chapter (Binghamton University) participated in Project Alpha projects, held an Afro‐Latino Week, participated in Walk American food and clothing drives.147 Nu Kappa Chapter (University of Maryland) established an Alpha Partnership for a role model/mentoring program for young men of color. The chapter worked with children at the Maryland Youth Residential Center, St. Vincent’s Home for abused children, and at the nationwide “Into the Streets.”148

Sigma Xi Chapter (Monmouth College) held a Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College peer mentoring program at local schools to offer at‐risk students friendship, guidance, and a positive perspective on life. The chapter produced a film on teen pregnancy in a school environment. The chapter also donated food during the holiday season, held a gospel concert during Black History Month for the benefit of the United Negro College Fund, held a talent show for the Arthritis Foundation, and raised money for the Muscular Dystrophy Foundation.149 Sigma Omicron Chapter (State University of New York at Oswego) held an education seminar with a speaker discussing AIDS and held a book sale for the local library.150 Theta Rho Chapter (Virginia Commonwealth University) held food drives feeding 300 and donated clothing to the homeless.151 Theta Epsilon Chapter (Adelphia University) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program, brought high school students on the campus, and held a Project Alpha program for Black and Hispanic males with discussion panels.152

Among alumni chapters, Gamma Iota Lambda Chapter (Brooklyn, New York) collaborated with Eta Theta Lambda Chapter (Wyandanch, New York) in their annual tour of HBCUs for high school students, they chaperoned and contributed to the cost for two local boys. The chapter heard lectures on African American youth ‘succumbing’ to violence, drugs, disease, and health problems. The chapter worked to advance educational opportunities for minorities.153 Zeta Theta Lambda Chapter (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania) sponsored a Project Alpha event with twenty‐one young men assembled to discuss teen pregnancy and their role in education with its theme: It’s A Man Thing.154 Kappa Phi Lambda Chapter (Columbia, Massachusetts) held a Martin Luther King, Jr. breakfast with a keynote speech entitled “Challenge to the Black Middle Class: Accepting Responsibility for the Least Among Us” with 800 attending.155

Iota Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Silver Spring, Maryland) held Educational Foundation Committee activities to provide scholarships, recognized academic, artistic, athletic, and community service achievements for minority students in the county, improved academic performance of minority students in the school system, and motivated and stimulated minority students to continue their education and pursue professional careers.156 Alpha Theta Lambda Chapter (Atlantic City, New Jersey) hosted 300 high school students as part of Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐To‐College. The chapter held workshops with twenty‐ six professionals as role models in a variety of disciplines. The brothers of the chapter met with students to provide guidance and continued mentorship.157 Omicron Delta Lambda Chapter (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) held a Project Alpha project with 100 teens attending along with sororities and teenage girls where each had separate sessions on bodily responsibility and understanding relationships with the opposite sex. The chapter also held a bowling party with proceeds going to scholarships.158

Zeta Phi Lambda Chapter (Norwalk, Connecticut) received a grant for Project Alpha programs to be held in three high schools to counsel students to reduce their chances of becoming fathers during their teen years. Project Alpha Male Responsibility Program helped students attend a regional leadership conference at Howard University.159 Delta Nu Lambda Chapter (Danville, Virginia) encouraged young African American males to finish high school and go on to college. The chapter championed a program to re‐introduce young African American males into society after getting out of the criminal justice system.160 Delta Mu Lambda Chapter (Paterson, New Jersey) distributed food to the disadvantaged during the holidays, worked in a boys’ orphanage to act as role models, and bought dress shirts for boys in a predominantly African American grammar school. The chapter’s members served on the Special Task Force in the Paterson school system, and kept politically active by holding forums for candidates for local and national office.161 Alpha Kappa Lambda Chapter (Roanoke, Virginia) held a Bowl for Kids Sake event and worked on a Project Alpha project where drug and alcohol abuse and teen pregnancy were discussed with middle and high school students. The chapter established a Boy Scout troop and organized a trip for high school students to visit the university.162

Among college chapters in the Southern Region, Mu Pi Chapter (Baptist College) participated in a recycling project, a cleanup of the Jenkins Orphanage, and participated in the Cities in Schools Program with counseling and mentoring for at risk youth.163 Beta Omicron Chapter (Tennessee State University) held a Bike‐A‐Thon to raise money to fight drug abuse.164 Mu Alpha Chapter (Emory University) sponsored Project Alpha: The Black Male and Teenage Pregnancy, a service project with Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia). Mu Alpha Chapter also participated in the Jerry Lewis Telethon, Big Brothers Big Sisters for Kids Sake, Boys Scouts, and the MLK Papers Project. The chapter held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program with career day at an elementary school, a Play Day in the Park for the underprivileged, and a Martin Luther King National Holiday March. The chapter also hosted events for the community: a Martin Luther King Commemorative Reception, a Malcolm X Activism Rap Session, and a Pro‐professional symposium. 165

Kappa Theta Chapter (Vanderbilt University) participated with a Boys and Girls Club in activities including football games for children aged seven to seventeen with alternative sports and study programs.166 Alpha Phi Chapter (Clark Atlanta University) awarded scholarships, held seminars labeled “Know Thyself” urging students to learn about African American heritage, and mentored students at a local elementary school and an orphanage.167 Alpha Omicron Chapter (Johnson C. Smith University) gave a tour of the university to high school students emphasizing the importance of a college education, held a canned‐goods party for the benefit of the community, and spoke to members of a local church about college.168 Omicron Phi Chapter (Tennessee Tech University) held an event to raise money to support Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐to‐College.169

Beta Delta Chapter (South Carolina State University) participated in a neighborhood Halloween Carnival, assisted at a party for the underprivileged at the Orangeburg Area Development Center, distributed candy to hospitalized children, and held a Thanksgiving food drive. The chapter participated in an Adopt A Child Christmas Project for area foster children, held seminars during Black History Month at local schools, visited residents of the Orangeburg Nursing Home, and tutored and counseled young men. The chapter also belonged to the Big Brothers Big Sisters program, awarded scholarships, donated uniforms to Boy Scouts, and contributed to the March of Dimes Health Center to buy medicine for low income people.170

Gamma Beta Chapter (North Carolina Central University) tutored at the Boys & Girls Club, did a cleanup for Adopt A Highway and participated in projects for Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College and Project Alpha: I Am My Brother’s Keeper for high school students.171 Beta Upsilon Chapter (Alabama State University) participated in a Montgomery County Food Bank drive, two clothes drives, and donated to a student whose family had lost their home and to a girl to attend ballet camp. The chapter also held an educational program targeting seventh, eighth, and ninth graders.172 Xi Eta Chapter (Wake Forest University) worked intensely with the Winston‐Salem, North Carolina community. Brothers worked shifts at a local soup kitchen during their spring breaks, fostered improved relations with Big Brothers Big Sisters, and donated to the Black Student Alliance.173 Xi Phi Chapter (Winthrop University) held a Mentor Day with at‐risk elementary students, held cultural lectures, and brought the African American community to campus.174 Gamma Beta Chapter (North Carolina Central University) awarded scholarships.175

Among alumni chapters, Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia), Alumni Chapter of the Year, conducted a Male Involvement Conference as part of their Male Involvement and Responsibility Decision Making Outreach to youth partnering with the Big Brothers Big Sister and Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College movement which mentors young African American males. The chapter held a  Scholarship fundraiser for the Boys Choir of Harlem where 1000 tickets were given to underprivileged students of low income families.176 Gamma Zeta Lambda Chapter (Tampa, Florida) participated in the Go‐ To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College Alpha national theme. Gamma Zeta Lambda Chapter held an Educating Everyone Take Everyone program, a theme of American Education Week, at the local schools to spread the message to stay in school. 177

Omicron Mu Lambda Chapter (Marietta, Georgia) worked to help citizens of Cobb County, especially African American youth for the Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College Campaign with Alpha Outreach to expose young men to strong, positive, and successful African American male role models. The chapter held weekly tutoring at the Boys Club. The Young Organizing United to Help (YOUTH) initiative sponsored programs in high schools and sponsored students to attend the Leadership Development Citizenship Education Workshop at Fisk University with four day workshops.178 Omicron Beta Lambda Chapter (Clearwater, Florida) held a four‐week program to offer guidance and encouragement for thirty‐five to forty high school students in the areas of education, career opportunities, health, and cultural awareness. The chapter held a Men of Tomorrow program to compliment the Alpha Institute to introduce young men to society.179

Omicron Lambda Chapter (Birmingham, Alabama) initiated “First Light,” an innovative TV show that dealt with community topics such as black‐on‐black crime. The chapter also held a mentoring program which featured panel discussions for high school students.180 Beta Omicron Lambda Chapter (Mobile, Alabama) held a Founder’s Day event with a speaker promoting the African American male and the continued struggle to avoid extinction.181 Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Jacksonville, Florida) held a gala with proceeds going to the United Negro College Fund to fund a scholarship for a deserving student at Abyssinia Baptist College, held a golf tournament for the United Negro College Fund and adopted a stretch of highway in the heart of the black community.182 The Chapter (Jackson, Tennessee) held the annual conference “Promoting the African American Male.”183

In the Southwestern Region, college chapters continued to lead the way. Rho Epsilon Chapter (Loyola University) held an annual clothes drive for Goodwill Industries, contributed to the United Negro College Fund, and held Drug and Alcohol Awareness Week in middle schools.184 Beta Kappa Chapter (Langston University) held  an Education seminar called ‘Education: An Investment in the African American Race,’ planned a tutorial program for area students, a food and clothing drive, and an African American symposium.185 Nu Pi Lambda Chapter (Arlington, Texas) established an Alpha Ambassador Club to enhance young African American students’ analytical reasoning and leadership skills to eventually succeed in college.186

Delta Sigma Chapter (Grambling State University) conducted an Extended Day program to serve as tutorial assistants at a local high school. Brothers acted as role models and peer counselors. The chapter adopted a stretch of highway and visited an elderly woman to help with chores. The chapter also spent time with young men for Big Brothers Big Sisters and participated in a book drive providing text books to high school students.187 Theta Mu Chapter (Sam Houston University) held a Black Student Festival essay contest for high school students with proceeds for scholarships. The chapter participated in Black Collegian’s No Drugs in the Yard program and a Challenge program gave brothers an opportunity to tutor/mentor overlooked children in the school system.188 Beta Tau Chapter (Xavier University) held a Project Alpha program, tutored in elementary and high schools, held a blood drive, participated in a Martin Luther King Week of Peace March, sponsored an Antiracism program, and participated in a Black Cultural Festival.189

Among the alumni chapters, Sigma Lambda Chapter (New Orleans, Louisiana), Alumni Chapter of the Year, held a Project Alpha program with seminars to address teen pregnancy, held food and clothes drives for needy families and single parents, sponsored a Boy Scout troop with brothers serving as scout masters, and adopted a high school through the Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program.190 Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) awarded scholarships, sponsored two male high school juniors to the Alpha Academy at the University of Missouri, and ten students to attend Midwest Regional Leadership and Citizenship Conference.191 Alpha Lambda Chapter (Louisville, Kentucky) held a fundraiser for the Boy Scouts.192 Iota Lambda Chapter (Indianapolis, Indiana) participated in a new Eagle Scout program, seeking scouts from inner city housing development.193 Beta Lambda Chapter (Kansas City, Kansas) joined forces with the Buffalo Soldiers Monument Committee in a nationwide search for the oldest living soldier.194

Omicron Zeta Lambda Chapter (Fayetteville, Arkansas) held an Excellence in Education program and a Mr. Ebony Scholarship contest open to African American males in junior and high school.195 Pi Lambda Chapter (Little Rock, Arkansas) sponsored community football teams for eight to thirteen year olds and monitored the students’ academic progress in school. The chapter received donations from Arkansas Power and Light Company for its tutorial program in science, math, and reading in junior high school. The chapter also participated with Little Rock’s Partnership in Education Program.196 Theta Delta Lambda Chapter (El Paso, Texas) funded an endowment at the University to assist primarily African American male students in need of financial aid and provided time and equipment to keep graduating high school seniors “to keep them off the street and free of drugs.”197

In the Midwestern Region, Upsilon Chapter (University of Kansas) participated in a Lawrence Kansas Biddy Basketball League with Delta Sigma Theta as co‐sponsors for a fifth and sixth grade team, coaching and developing basketball skills and teamwork. The chapter promoted unity with predominantly white fraternities and donated to the United Negro College Fund, UNICEF, and the Salvation Army.198 Beta Tau Chapter (Xavier University) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐ To‐College program.199 Epsilon Chapter (University of Michigan) held an AIDS workshop with the theme of the impact on the African American community, donated to the Black Student Emergency Loan Fund, a service for students with financial challenges, visited nursing homes, and gave tours to children and those at a detention home.200 Pi Chapter (Cleveland, Ohio) served the community with clothing and food drives, held a high school essay contest, visited a day care center and middle school, participated in a Multiple Sclerosis Society Walk‐A‐ Thon, an African American Performing Arts Festival, and a drive to register bone marrow donors.201

The alumni chapters in the Midwest also served their communities in a variety of ways. Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) awarded scholarships and held a seven month intense and innovative program on leadership augmented with social events.202 Nu Chi Lambda Chapter (Iowa City, Iowa) held a Leadership Development Conference for junior high schools in cooperation with the Iowa City School District, helped seventh through twelfth grade students with self‐esteem through seminars discussing the significance of African American history.203 Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) awarded scholarships for high school seniors.204 Pi and Delta Alpha Lambda Chapters (Cleveland, Ohio) held a Project Alpha retreat at a YMCA camp with the theme Manhood. The chapters recruited high school students in the greater Cleveland area and arranged a tour of the Malcolm X exhibit at the African American History museum. The chapters held sessions on family, seeking goals, and sexual issues including AIDS. The brothers continued to meet with thirty students on an individual basis. They participated in a United Negro College Fund Walk‐A‐Thon.205 Iota Lambda Chapter (Indianapolis, Indiana) participated in the Circle City Classic parade.206

Out West, Kappa Omicron Chapter (Vallejo, California) implemented a summer Project Alpha program with one day seminars to motivate young males. The chapter worked with the March of Dimes on a program with professional speakers on topics including dropout prevention and provided medical information on subjects such as preventing teen pregnancies and STDs.207 Mu Chi Chapter (California State University at Long Beach) staged a summer clothes and food drive, held a jazz concert to raise money for scholarships for underprivileged inner city youth, and targeted a school in Compton for a Project Alpha and Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program.208

Gamma Chi Lambda Chapter (San Francisco, Clafornia) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program holding weekend education classes for junior and high school emphasizing college entrance. The chapter also held career workshops for African American male students and mentoring to guide students. It also held monthly workshops on career awareness.209 Omicron Theta Lambda Chapter (Hayward, California) held a Big Brothers Big Sisters program for unmatched little brothers. In their Our School Days Program, brothers shared social and educational experiences with students.210 Zeta Sigma Lambda Chapter (San Diego, California) operated a Martin Luther King, Jr. parade with the city of San Diego with 2000 participants and media exposure. The chapter also sponsored a gala with the American Cancer society.211

Beta Psi Lambda Chapter (Los Angeles, California) participated in emergency planning with the city in the wake of the Rodney King verdict and started to plan an “Action Plan” to rebuild South Central Los Angeles affected by the rioting.212 Zeta Sigma Lambda Chapter (San Diego, California) instituted an educational program focusing on the education in African American male students with high academics to ensure they remain in school. The chapter’s “Continuing Academic Excellence Program” was geared to African American students in grades nine through twelve with 3.0 GPAs.213 Mu Sigma Lambda Chapter (Culver City, California) hosted a Project Alpha program with fifty age twelve to sixteen males, lectured on teen pregnancy, STDs and social responsibilities, and awarded scholarships to six high school students with brothers assigned as mentors. Brothers also individually supported the Institute for Black Parenting with the YMCA.214 Tau Lambda Chapter (Santa Ana, California) held a golf tournament to raise funds for scholarships.215

On the litigation front, Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the Eleventh Circuit United States Court of Appeals in Lee v. Etowah County Board of Education on consolidated appeals from orders of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama, Acker, Jr., deriving from a 1963 class action by African American parents of school‐aged children challenging racial segregation and discrimination in Alabama public schools. The Court of Appeals, Tjoflat, Chief Judge, held that: (1) district court did not abuse its discretion by terminating discovery despite Lee’s request for additional discovery; (2) absence of court‐ordered reports did not preclude finding of unitary status, as parties and court otherwise had been afforded information from which compliance with court’s orders could be determined; (3) district court fully complied with letter and spirit of hearing requirement and gave adequate notice to Lee of its intent to treat proceedings as if motions for summary judgment had been filed; and (4) genuine issues of material fact precluded summary judgment.216

Subsequent cases have reiterated that a previously segregated school system does not become desegregated so as to achieve unitary status and be relieved of court supervision simply by implementing a desegregation plan and the court must retain jurisdiction for a period of time after the school system has implemented a desegregation plan to ensure proper implementation, guard against recurring constitutional violations, and ensure achievement of goal. Lee proffered evidence showing that while the general population within the Etowah County school system was 1.4% African American, only .5% of the teaching faculty in the system was African American‐ which is argued as inexcusable since the population of Etowah County was 15% African American.217

The court reversed the order of the district court and granted summary judgment to the defendants and dismisses these cases. The cases are remanded to the district court for an evidentiary hearing as to the status of each school system.218 Julius Chambers represented the parties.

Brother Julius Chambers lost his case before the Fifth Circuit United States Court of Appeals in Mississippi State Chapter Operation Push v. Mabus. Mississippi State Chapter Operation Push (MSCOP) brought suit under the Voting Rights Act challenging Mississippi’s dual voter registration requirement and prohibition on satellite voter registration. After the court determined that Mississippi statutes had a discriminatory impact on African American voters in violation of the Act, Mississippi legislature passed remedial legislation which court found effectively remedied the violations. After unsuccessful appeal by MSCOP challenging the remedial legislation, MSCOP moved for an award of attorney fees. The District Court, Davidson, J., held that (1) MSCOP were not entitled to attorney fees incurred during unsuccessful appeal, (2) MSCOP were entitled to attorney fees for work during initial stage of litigation which resulted in determination of violations of the Act, (3) MSCOP were not entitled to attorney fees for subsequent stage of litigation during which they unsuccessfully challenged remedial statute. Motion granted in part and denied in part.219

The case involved a challenge by African American citizens to Mississippi’s voter registration system where MSCOP alleged in the district court that Mississippi’s dual registration system and prohibition on satellite registration violated the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. MSCOP challenged the dual registration system and the prohibition on satellite registration as devices enacted by the Mississippi Legislature with the intended purpose of limiting African American voter registration. Registration could only take place in the registrar’s office generally located in the county courthouse which proved to be a problem because a significant percentage of Mississippi’s African American did not have access to the transportation necessary to travel to register or the type of job that would allow them to leave during work hours to do so which resulted in a rate 25% lower than white citizens.220 The court afforded Mississippi lawmakers an opportunity to remedy the violations.221 To recover attorneys’ fees under 42 U.S.C. 1988 or 42 U.S.C. 1973l(e), MSCOP must have been the prevailing party. MSCOP supplemental motion is for an award of fees and expenses incurred in pursuing a losing appeal. People who bring losing suits must bear their own attorney’s fees.222 While future successful challenges are always possible, the Court of Appeals concluded that S.B. 2610 established reasonable registration procedures common to many states and sufficiently remedied the 2 violations. Accordingly, the district court decision approving S.B. 2610 was affirmed.223 At the conclusion of all proceedings, MSCOP was entitled to an award of attorneys’ and paralegal fees of $145,149.30 and expenses in the amount of $23,728.224 Julius Chambers represented the plaintiffs.

Brother Julius Chambers lost his case before the United States District Court of New York in Patterson v. Newspaper and Mail Deliverers’ Union. The newspaper delivery industry defendants moved to vacate or modify consent decree incorporating settlement agreement reached in civil rights litigation. The District Court, Conner, J., held that consent decree would be vacated, as objective of 25% minority employment industry‐wide had been achieved. Ordered accordingly.225 A class of private plaintiffs and the EEOC brought two civil rights actions in § 1973 against the Newspaper and Mail Deliverers’ Union of New York and Vicinity and more than fifty publishers and news distributors having collective bargaining agreements with the Union. Both suits charged that the Union, with publishers and distributors,  has historically discriminated against minorities, and that the structure of the collective bargaining agreement had perpetuated the effects of past discrimination in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Each lawsuit sought an affirmative action program designed to achieve for minorities the status they would have had in the newspaper delivery industry but for the alleged discriminatory practices. On September 19, 1974, District Judge Pierce issued an opinion and order approving a settlement between the parties and incorporating the Settlement Agreement in a Consent Decree.226

The Court recognized that the current Consent Decree “may not offer the best solution to any ongoing concerns that today’s victims of discrimination may voice.”227 The termination of the Consent Decree does not alter the defendants’ substantive legal obligation to obey the law nor permit defendants to discriminate against minorities in employment decisions. Title VII and others still remain in effect and are fully applicable. Additionally, any complaints may be taken to the EEOC, if appropriate, for processing.228 Therefore, the Consent Decree was vacated in its entirety. The Administrator’s Office is instructed to hear and decide all claims instituted prior to the date of this order. Until such cases are disposed, the services shall continue for the sole purpose of completing these cases. The Court shall retain jurisdiction over any appeals from these claims, but no new claims will be initiated or processed.229 Julius Chambers represented the parties.

Brother Julius Chambers wrote an amicus curiae brief for his case before the Second Circuit of the United States Court of Appeals in Sassower v. Field. Following an unsuccessful housing discrimination suit, sanctions in amount of $93,350 were imposed on the unsuccessful pro se plaintiffs by order of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and plaintiffs appealed. The Court of Appeals, Newman, Circuit Judge, held that: (1) fees could not be awarded under the Fair Housing Act, (2) under statute permitting imposition of fees against “attorney or other person admitted” to conduct cases in court who multiplies proceedings unreasonably and vexatiously, fees could be awarded against pro se plaintiff who was a lawyer, but not against nonlawyer, (3) sanctions were properly awarded under court’s inherent authority for vexatious and oppressive tactics, but (4) imposition of joint liability for full amount on one of the plaintiffs was improper in absence of evidence that her financial resources permitted award of that size. Affirmed in part and vacated and remanded in part.230

The plaintiffs alleged that the defendants, corporate owner of a cooperative apartment building in White Plains, New York, and directors and an officer of the corporate owner, had discriminated against them by rejecting their application to acquire an apartment in the building through purchase of coop stock shares and assignment of  a proprietary lease from a former occupant. Plaintiffs alleged discrimination on account of their status as single, Jewish women and that the rejection had been based primarily on the owner’s disapproval of the use to be made of the apartment.231

Continuing their vexatious and harassing tactics, the plaintiffs submitted to Judge Goettel, a motion for a new trial under Rule 60 (b) (3) along with several hundred pages of supporting papers and a thousand pages of exhibits, several months after the trial. All issues raised by appellants were found lacking in merit and this motion was mostly a re‐argument of numerous claims made prior to and during trial, so it was denied.232 The denial of the plaintiffs’ motion for new trial and for sanctions against defendants is affirmed; the supplemental judgment awarding sanctions against the plaintiffs is affirmed as to liability, affirmed as to amount with respect to Doris Sassower and vacated and remanded as to amount with respect to Elena Sassower.233

Brother Milton C. Davis was elected as the Fraternity’s twenty‐ninth General President in 1993.234 At his inauguration, General President Davis asked members to strive for strong families and to support financial and economic development in the community.235 Also at his inauguration, Brother Edward Brooke noted in a speech to members that he was concerned that African Americans were dying by the hands of their own.236 He said, “We cannot fail them now, lest we mutilate the powers of intellect that have been given to us.”237 In order to address crime and ensure that the accused received a fair day in court, Alpha Phi Alpha sought to infuse the justice system with unbiased and fair‐ minded judges.238 During General President Davis’ inaugural address, he reminded the brothers of Martin Luther King, Jr.’s words, “Life’s most persistent and urgent question is, ‘What are you doing for others?”’239 While President Davis emphasized that every brother did not have to agree on politics, they did have to agree on building and strengthening the community.240

The Fraternity also recognized that success in school required support at home. This issue was an ongoing concern for the Fraternity.241 At the Eighty‐Seventh Anniversary Convention in 1993, Dr. Miriam Wright Edelman, the first African American admitted to the Mississippi bar, gave a presentation in conjunction with Brothers Lee Brown, Raymond Pierce, and Bobby Austin, in which she encouraged parents to turn off the television to avoid having their children witness the embellished world of violence.242 Edelman advocated for an end to what she termed “adult hypocrisy” and a focus on ensuring that adults were strong role models for their children.243 Brother Brown added to Edelman’s message that government programs would not succeed if they did not have the support of adults in surrounding communities.244 At the 1993 General Convention, new chairman Brother Joe C. Thomas outlined the involvement of the Commission on Racial Justice with many national organizations, such as the N.A.A.C.P., the Urban League, the National Coalition on Black Voter Participation, the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC), the National Black Leadership Round Table, and the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights.245 That year, the Fraternity also invested $10,000 in Botswana Youth Center for a program to support the special needs of African youth.246 That was not the only international work the Fraternity did that year. Mu Phi Lambda Chapter (Republic of Korea) held a Black History Month program, donated to the United Negro College Fund, Boy Scouts, Korean Far  East District, and the American High School.247

In the Eastern Region, collegiate chapters were on the move. Alpha Chapter (Cornell University) held lectures on heightened community awareness such as private discrimination, absence of men of color in academics, ninety minutes with Malcom X, and living with AIDS. A major project of the chapter was a tour for local high school students of Historically Black Colleges and Universities.248 Mu Rho Chapter (Towson State College) participated in the Baltimore Walk for Africa and the University’s Walk for Diabetes. The chapter also participated in outreach and community support projects, the Minority Book Scholarship, contributed to Project Lean on US, a non‐profit assisting homeless children and hosted a family for Thanksgiving. The chapter joined with a predominately white fraternity to sponsor a seminar on racial harmony.249

Rho Alpha Chapter (State University of New York−Bridgeport) launched a voter registration drive that netted 300 new voters, fundraised for Sickle Cell Anemia and Diabetes, and played a major role in SUNY’s Big Brothers by providing tutoring for African American males in English and math.250 Sigma Omicron Chapter (State University of New York−Oswego) sponsored Road to Better Things for local students aged ten through sixteen, held a food drive for children of migrant workers, held a voter registration drive, a Project Alpha seminar, conducted a mentoring program with the Boys Club of Syracuse and participated in the Adopt A Grandparent program.251 Mu Sigma Chapter (Rochester Institute of Technology and University of Rochester) held a “Reel Bank,” a month long tribute to African American films with a monthly newsletter highlighting famous African Americans people, places, and events. The chapter held monthly seminars for “Building the Gap” to help develop improved relations on campus. Project Quant Excellence recognized high academic achievement among local seniors.252 Mu Sigma Chapter also held a multicultural workshop on Affirmative Action and gays in the military and a Black Expo featuring local African American businesses.253

Rho Chapter (Temple University) brothers tutored at schools and in churches in the area weekly and helped prepare youth for the  GE exams.254 Nu Kappa Chapter (University of Maryland) mentored and tutored middle school students in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades.255 Delta Epsilon Chapter (University of Buffalo) honored two African American teachers in the Buffalo School System and honored seniors for academic excellence. The chapter also hosted a Thanksgiving Turkey Raffle, a food and clothing drive and Project Alpha program.256 Gamma Iota Chapter (Hampton University) held a Voteless People are a Hopeless People voter registration drive and supported the candidacy of a Virginia congressman. The Gentlemen by Choice program held manhood seminars focusing on achievement, and mentored and tutored at a local elementary school. The chapter held a Halloween festival and donated to a needy family for the holidays.257

Among the alumni chapters in the Eastern Region, Omicron Delta Lambda Chapter (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) held a United Negro College Fund charity basketball game. The chapter’s agenda included Project Alpha programs where teens interacted with brothers serving as role models.258 Kappa Iota Lambda Chapter (Willingboro, New Jersey) sponsored the Afri‐Male Institute which held weekly sessions covering African American history, career counseling, public speaking, personal development, and scouting. Brothers visited inner city schools to spend a day at brothers’ work places.259 Omicron Lambda Alpha Chapter (Washington, D.C.) held an event to raise funds for scholarships and sponsored a series of educational seminars on male/female relationships, legal issues of AIDS, and the African American community. The chapter regularly participated in food preparation and food distribution for the needy at a local church and for the Sojourner’s Food Bank.260

Iota Theta Lambda Chapter (Endicott, New York) administered a Project Alpha (with the March of Dimes) Workshop on safe sex, decision‐making, responsibility, and the legal aspects of teen pregnancy. Brothers were instructors and tour guides introducing minors to careers in math, science, and technology. Forty students attended weekly sessions over ten weeks. The chapter played a leadership role in the March of Dimes March “Where Do We Go From Here/ Nonviolence: Learning It, Living It, Teaching It.”261 Nu Omicron Lambda Chapter (Fort Lee, Virginia) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐ College program, contributed to United Negro College Fund, and chaired a Drug Awareness Program for the Boy Scouts. The chapter participated in the United Negro College Fund telethon, and a HBCU basketball tournament.262

Xi Alpha Lambda Chapter (Prince William County, Virginia) held a Math and Reading Tutorial program with fifty African American elementary students, stressing the importance of math, reading skills, study skills, and increasing parental involvement. The chapter was supported by the American Nuclear Society. Brothers adopted a student and provided transportation to the program site and supervised the tutoring once a week.263 Zeta Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Reston, Virginia) honored 160 students in grades seven through twelve for academic excellence. Scholarships were awarded to four African American seniors.264

In the Southern Region, Delta Kappa Chapter (Alcorn State University) brothers visited high schools to promote the value of continuing education including the admissions process.265 Iota Chapter (Morris Brown College) organized a Boy Scout troop–Troop Alpha–and sponsored, with the YMCA, a basketball tournament for the economically disadvantaged.266 Pi Delta Chapter (Livingstone University) worked with Alpha Kids mentoring and tutoring students, held a Project Alpha workshop on teen pregnancy, launched a Halloween party to raise funds for the underprivileged with the Department of Human Resources. Brothers visited shut‐ins at local nursing homes.267

Gamma Zeta Lambda Chapter (Tampa, Florida) was awarded a March of Dimes grant to support a Project Alpha program with topics on teen pregnancy, male responsibility for pregnancy and parenting, career goals and STDs. The chapter adopted a family at Christmas with food and financial assistance.268 Delta Phi Chapter (Jacksonville State) hosted a candlelight vigil for Martin Luther King, Jr., a scholarship gala, partnered in a city cleanup project, held a clothing drive, and painted a house for a displaced woman in Jackson, Mississippi.269 Nu Mu Chapter (Southern Technical Institute) participated in an AIDs Walk in Atlanta, part of a citywide effort to dramatize the plight of AIDS victims and the need of a cure. The chapter also adopted a stretch of highway.270

Mu Zeta Chapter (University of North Carolina) held a Voteless People are a Hopeless People event.271 Kappa Beta Chapter (Mississippi State University) received an N.A.A.C.P. Image Award. The chapter’s Science Opportunity Series attracted 150 fourth and fifth graders to encourage studying. The chapter also adopted a stretch of highway and held a clothes drive.272 Beta Nu Chapter (Florida A & M University) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program tutoring local youth. The chapter also visited local hospitals and children at community centers, and held a Voteless People are a Hopeless People program.273

Delta Gamma Chapter (Alabama A & M University) sponsored a child in a third world country. The chapter administered ongoing counseling and a tutorial program in a Huntsville school. They raised funds for the Boy Scout Camporee, held a campus blood drive, and sponsored an educational forum.274 Sigma Tau Chapter (University of South Carolina−Aiken) held a voter registration drive, adopted a highway, participated in a National Into the Streets Day,  and conducted a Rights of Passage program bringing brothers in contact with African American elementary students to focus on leadership.275 Alpha Phi Chapter (Clark Atlanta University) brothers acted as role models for elementary school students, held blood, clothing, and goods drives, held a seminar on test‐taking and African History, and conducted a voter registration drive.276

Among the alumni chapters, Zeta Mu Lambda Chapter (Gulfport, Mississippi) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program.277 Zeta Alpha Lambda Chapter’s (Fort Lauderdale) Men of Tomorrow received scholarships. Needy families were given Thanksgiving baskets. The chapter also donated funds to Habitat for Humanity, brothers mentored young men living in homes without a male figure, and were active with senior citizens and Scout Troops.278 Nu Mu Lambda Chapter (Decatur, Georgia) held an Afro Centric Affair which raised funds for scholarships.279

Alpha Pi Lambda Chapter (Winston‐Salem, North Carolina) sponsored a science fair for area high school students with the theme Cardiovascular Health in African Americans and Adolescents. The chapter worked to get a local street named for Martin Luther King, Jr. It contributed to the YMCA, the United Negro College Fund and a scholarship fund, and cleaned up a local highway for Adopt a Highway.280 Pi Sigma Lambda Chapter (Oxford, Mississippi) held a Martin Luther King program, supported needy children with toy and food drives for the holidays, and awarded scholarships.281 Kappa Nu Lambda Chapter (Sheffield, Alabama) held quarterly leadership workshops for ninth through twelfth graders to give advice and support on peer pressure, African American awareness, careers, and teen pregnancy. The chapter held a tutoring program for elementary students.282

Omicron Beta Lambda Chapter (Clearwater, Florida)  held Alpha Institute and Men of Tomorrow programs providing area youth with positive options. They were designed to give teenagers an early start in preparation for successful independent living through career planning, academic excellence, and leadership development. The chapter launched the Afrikan Heritage Summer Dance, a cultural experience, sponsored with corporate support and attended by African American vendors.283 Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia) held community programs at the Alpha Community Center and it housed a dance troop, a nursery school, and Outreach ministries. The chapter also established a Boy Scout Troop, health fairs, gave dinners and donated food to the needy.284

In the Southwestern Region, Kappa Mu Chapter (Nicholls State University) contributed supplies to children at day care centers and helped families who had lost belongings in Hurricane Andrew. The chapter actively supported a candidate for a Parish council seat.285 Epsilon Upsilon Chapter (Southern University) participated in Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐to‐College, Project Alpha, voter registration drive, and numerous Sickle Cell Anemia drives.286 Delta Sigma Chapter (Grambling State University) held an Extended Day tutoring and counseling program in local high schools.287 Zeta Chi Chapter (University of Texas−Austin) worked with Big Brothers Big Sisters to co‐sponsor a mentoring program for fourth, fifth and sixth graders, and held a Thanksgiving food drive.288 Eta Mu Chapter (University of Houston) brothers taught African American fifth graders lessons on constructive use of time to keep them positively occupied during the summer. The chapter coordinated volunteers working at the N.A.A.C.P. ACT‐50 awards.289

Pi Lambda Chapter (Little Rock, Arkansas) had an alliance with a Law and Government Post to emphasize leadership among neighborhood youth. Young men and women were mentored by  Alphas in the Little Rock School District’s Partnership in Education program. The chapter committed resources to an elementary school and participated in Adopt A Highway for two miles of local highway. Two brothers are deputy registrars in the Little Rock community.290 Rho Mu Chapter (West Texas A&M University) held their first Project Alpha program. Thirty‐three brothers and teenagers attended a workshop on reproductive responsibility, STDs, substance abuse, teen pregnancy, and legal issues. The chapter held a male mentoring program for Big Brothers and Tutored for Headstart.291 Pi Theta Lambda and Delta Rho Lambda chapters (San Antonio, Texas) held a Project Alpha program at a local high school as part of Teen Issues Workshop and Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program.292 Seven chapters in the Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas area participated in a March of Dimes Walkathon.293

In the Midwest, Epsilon Kappa Chapter (Bradley University) helped the victims of Hurricane Andrew with food and clothes drives, and tutored elementary and high school students at the Urban League.294 Theta Lambda Chapter (Dayton, Ohio) conducted Project Compassion that focused on the plight of the homeless and elderly. Brothers served at homeless shelters, held clothes and food drives at local churches, and visited residents of nursing homes. Project Alpha held one day seminars and made year‐round contacts with mentee groups. Brothers worked on community projects such as visiting museums and attending games. The chapter also held the Eighth Annual Group Youth Recognition Activity.295 Sigma Phi Chapter (Indiana University) held five biweekly discussions with the theme Rebuilding A Family with students, faculty, and community leaders taking part in panels. The chapter sponsored special summer programs with brothers acting as coaches for the Little League and as Scout leaders.296

Tau Chapter (University of Illinois) called attention to the plights of Somalia, joining with the N.A.A.C.P. to sponsor a forum on the problems of the starving country. The chapter raised money to aid the emergency relief efforts. The chapter also participated in a Black History Month Art Show and brought local students to join with university students for weekly meetings to foster understanding.297 Nu Delta Chapter (Chicago State University) donated 200 hours as tutors with a homeless hotline and as counselors for Project Alpha. The chapter participated in a United Negro College Fund Walk‐A‐Thon, the national Urban League Job Fair, the N.A.A.C.P. Tag Day, a Red Cross blood drive, Children’s Halloween and Easter activities and Adopt a Senior Citizen.298 Beta Mu Chapter (Kentucky State University) provided scholarships for four students and held a Black History Quiz and Poetry contest.299

Gamma Lambda Chapter (Detroit, Michigan) saved the Livingstone House which was scheduled for demolition by purchasing it and receiving a federal grant to rehabilitate it. The chapter also raised funds for the United Negro College Fund.300 Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) secured and was awarded funds for a scholarship for an African American student. The chapter held a six‐month interactive training program for 150 youth with sessions on personal and career goals, selecting colleges, human sexuality and pregnancy prevention.301

In the Western Region, Nu Sigma Chapter (Stanford University) held quarterly senior citizen luncheons and an Alpha Boys Club tutoring and mentoring project. The chapter worked to raise cultural awareness and pride in African heritage.302 Eta Sigma Chapter (Metropolitan Chapter of San Diego, California) held an observance of Black History Month with an Art Exhibit and paid homage to African American women, held an AIDS awareness night, treated young men to a movie and inner city youth to a football game.303

Eta Psi Lambda Chapter (Tucson, Arizona) honored high school seniors for academic achievement. The chapter joined with the African American Studies Department of the Tucson Unified School District to sponsor a symposium on personal development for challenges facing students.304 Eta Sigma Lambda Chapter (San Jose, Califronia) held a Project Alpha program for seventy ten to fifteen year‐olds who were bussed to the mountains for a weekend of straight talk on STDs, teen pregnancies, legal rights, responsibilities, and drug abuse. The chapter worked with the Urban League, were active in the United Negro College Fund Walk‐A‐Thon, Chefs for UNCF and the UNCF Telethon. Brothers headed the local N.A.A.C.P. and served as chair of the March of Dimes Affairs Committee.305 Iota Lambda Chapter (Indianapolis, Indiana) provided scholarships for junior college students who could not afford a four‐year college.306 Pi Rho Lambda Chapter (Hollywood/Beverly Hills, California) held an annual Inner City Football camp that provided training on football techniques and discussed issues such as teen pregnancies from the male perspective.307

On the litigation front, Brother Julius Chambers lost, in part, and won in part, his case before the Second Circuit United States Court of Appeals in Butts v. City of New York Dept of Housing. City employee filed discrimination action against the city department of housing preservation and development under Title VII, 42 U.S.C.A. 1981, and state common law based on denial of promotions and discrimination in terms and conditions of employment based on race and sex. United States District Court for the Southern District of New York dismissed the action and Butts appealed. The Court of Appeals held that (1) Civil Rights Act of 1991 did not apply retroactively to Butts’ § 1981 claim, thus the § 1981 claims for discrimination in terms and conditions of employment were dismissed; (2) complaint stated cause of action as to timely § 1981 promotion claims. Affirmed in part, reversed in part and remanded.308

Butts, an African‐American woman, alleged that the City denied her promotions and discriminated against her in the terms and conditions of her employment based on her race and sex. The district court dismissed her complaint in its entirety pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 12(b) and (6) as well as dismissed her various Title VII claims on the grounds that they were either time‐barred or had not been raised in her discrimination charge with the EEOC. The district court, relying on Patterson v. McLean dismissed Butts’ § 1981 terms and conditions claims since a § 1981 cause of action will lie for discrimination in refusing to enter a contract but not for discrimination in contract performance. The district court also dismissed promotion claims because it found that the promotions would not have created a “new and distinct” relation between employee and employer as required by Patterson. The court further held that the Civil Rights Act of 1991 applied prospectively only and therefore did not make Butts’ claims actionable. The court also dismissed Butts’ state common law claims, but she does not raise this on appeal.309

Butts’ three timely promotion discrimination claims involve alleged denials of promotion from Computer System Manager on one occasion to Deputy Commissioner of the Office of Management and Administration and on two occasions to Director of Systems Architecture. The positions of Deputy Commissioner or Director of Systems Architecture could entail substantially different, and greater, supervisory and policy‐making responsibilities and a corresponding change in status so as to amount to a new and distinct relation between Butts and the City. This determination cannot be made simply by examining the complaint. Therefore, it is found that the district court erred in dismissing under Patterson Butts’ three claims and remanded them for further consideration.310 Court affirms that the district court’s dismissal of Plaintiff’s Title VII claims, except for the two claims relating to her exclusion from reorganization meetings, as to which we reverse. The court affirms the district court’s findings that the § 1981 amendments of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 do not apply retroactively, and affirm the dismissal of Butts’ § 1981 claims for discrimination in the terms and conditions of her employment. The court also affirms the district court’s dismissal of Butts’ untimely promotion discrimination claims under § 1981. However, the court reverses the district court’s dismissal of Butts’ timely § 1981 promotion claims alleging the City’s failure to promote her to Deputy Commissioner of the Office of Management and Administration and Director of Systems Architecture. The case to the district court is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. Affirmed in part, reversed in part, and remanded. The parties shall bear their own costs.311 Julius Chambers represented the parties.

Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the Ninth Circuit of the United States Court of Appeals in Charles v. Garrett. Plaintiff Charles filed a class complaint with the Department of Navy alleging racial discrimination where it vacillated between the Navy and EEOC for more than ten years. Charles then filed in district court where the district court granted the defendant’s motion to dismiss for failure to exhaust administrative remedies. Charles appealed with the argument that she cooperated with the administrative process for more than 180 days and was entitled to file in district court, even if they failed to cooperate in the administrative process after 180 days had elapsed.312

Initially, Charles with other plaintiffs filed a class complaint with the Department of Navy pursuant to Section 717 of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act on January 30, 1979.313 They alleged that the Navy Suppler Center Oakland discriminated against African Americans. The complaint was passed to the EEOC where hearings were conducted. After February 5, 1985, the EEOC Examiner issued an opinion finding no discrimination; the Navy accepted this finding on October 17, 1985. Charles filed with the ORA in November 1985 and the ORA issued a decision on December 22, 1987 that the class had been improperly certified and would not have been enough class members to satisfy the numerosity requirement if it had been.314 Charles filed and were granted a request to have the full commission of EEOC reopen the case, and on November 29, 1988 the commission issued that the class met the numerosity requirement and evidence of race discrimination existed as well as gave the Navy 60 days to comply. On February 10, 1989, the Navy issued its final decision after not complying and Charles filed her second appeal to the ORA stating that the Navy definition violated the previous EEOC decision.315 After redefinition, the Navy’s petition to reopen the case denied, and the order to comply with the EEOC’s July 1989 decision, Charles’ counsel proposed settlement and discussions ensued.316

On November 13, 1990, the judge held an emergency status conference and told Charles and the other plaintiffs that they had until April 1, 1991 to find a new counsel, but they were unable to find class representatives that would take on the Department of Navy without fees, so on May 13, 1991, the Navy sent notice of proposed cancellation of the complaint.317 The complaint was cancelled on June 10, 1991 for failure to prosecute and on July 15, 1991, Charles filed in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and the Navy filed a motion to dismiss or summary judgment for failure to exhaust administrative remedies which the district court granted.318 The district court reasoned that Charles was estopped to claim that the Navy failed to comply with the 180 days because Charles had terminated settlement negotiations on that eve of the settlement, asked their attorney to withdraw and failed to find replacement of counsel within six months. A federal employee challenged the discriminatory employment practices in the federal government section 717 of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act.319 The court ultimately found that Charles had complied with the administrative process for over twelve years and found that the district court should not have dismissed Charles’ claim for failure to exhaust administrative remedies. The court reversed and remanded the district court for further proceedings in accordance with this opinion.320 Julius Chambers represented the parties.

Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the United States District Court of the Middle District of Alabama in Dillard v. City of Elba. The plaintiff class of African‐Americans (under head plaintiff Dillard) challenged the system used to elect council members for the City of Elba, as violating the second section of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 as amended in 1973. By the order on April 1, 1988, the court approved that the 1988 elections for city council must be conducted under a five single‐member district plan. In 1992, Dillard filed for a motion for additional relief claiming that the city must reapportion itself because of the 1988 redistricting plan no longer meeting the one‐ person one‐vote requirements. By order on July 28, 1993, the court ordered the city to conduct elections under a new plan meetings these requirements. Dillard motioned for attorney’s fees and expenses to be requested from the City of Elba as according to the Voting Rights Act a result of having to request additional relief.321 The court concluded that the Dillard was entitled to $6,670.00 in attorney’s fees for the twenty‐ three hours/ $290 per hour spent on the case, $463.45 in expenses for preparation, litigation and settlement from the City of Elba.322 Julius Chambers represented the parties.

Brother Julius Chambers lost his case before the Eleventh Circuit of the United States Court of Appeals in Elston v. Talladega County Board of Education. A class of African American children and their parents sued the county board of education, its individual members, and county school superintendent alleging that the board’s efforts to restructure its school system violated the Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI, and state law.323 The United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama entered judgment for the school board on Fourteenth Amendment and Title VI claims after dismissing the First Amendment, breach of contract, and state law claims. Elston appealed. The Court of Appeals held the following: (1) school board’s sitting decision with respect to consolidated elementary school did not violate equal protection clause or Title VI regulations; (2) board’s failure to make coextensive attendance zones for new consolidated elementary school and existing African American‐majority high school did not violate equal protection clause or Title VI regulations; (3) lack of change in overall racial composition at county and city schools did not preclude finding that school board’s failure to prevent zone‐ jumping violated equal protection clause and Title VI regulations; (4) board’s inaction regarding zone‐jumping did not violate equal protection clause or Title VI regulations given evidence that board was powerless to prevent zone‐jumping.324 Affirmed in part; vacated in part and remanded.

The Talladega County Board of Education has a long history of involvement in school desegregation litigation and adopted a motion on November 22, 1983 that stated that the Board would operate the school system “at all times so as to conform with the United States Constitution, laws passed by Congress, and all previous orders of” the district court.325 All actions challenged by Elston in this case were taken after the district court declared the Talladega County school systems unitary.326 The parents made a number of unsuccessful attempts to obtain information regarding the Board’s school restructuring programs.327 After trial held on August 21, 22, and 23, 1989, the district court determined that the defendants had not acted with discriminatory intent, their actions did not have a discriminatory effect on African Americans, and that defendants had offered legitimate non‐ discriminatory reasons for their actions. Therefore, Elston had failed to demonstrate any violation of the Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI, or Title VI regulations and denied these claims.328 Elston appealed on April 30, 1991, and this court per curiam vacated the judgment of district court, holding it abused its discretion in denying pro hac vice admission of the two N.A.A.C.P. Legal Defense Fund attorneys and denying Elston’s motion to add Talladega City Board of Education as a party defendant.329 The district court scheduled a supplementary hearing on January 16, 1992 so that Elston might offer any evidence not precluded by the court’s limitations.330 Elston denied the hearing stating that they had no other evidence and the court ruled in favor of defendants. Elston appealed again. The court found that there was no evidence that the Board sought the opinion from parents of students who would be affected and had delayed in providing the public generally with information regarding the developments as well as recognized that the June 23, 1988 letter that the Board provided African American parents’ group had misleading information regarding the plans. However, the district court ultimately found that there was no evidence the Board’s failure to be forthcoming with information regarding plans was motivated by racially discriminatory animus.331 The court affirmed the district court’s judgment for the defendants on the Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI, and Title VI regulations claims as well as the District court’s dismissal of the breach of contract claim and of the Alabama Open Records Act claim; it is affirmed that the district court’s rulings regarding the receipt of evidence of events occurring before March 13, 1985 or after August 23, 1989. The court vacates the district court’s dismissal of Elston’s First Amendment claim and remanded the case with instructions.332 Julius Chambers represented Elston.

Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the District Court of the Eastern District of New York in Jackson v. Nassau County Board of Supervisors. Voters brought a constitutional challenge to the method of voting used by county board of supervisors, which was made up of one official per town in the five towns whereby officials from more populous towns got more voting power than those from less populous. The District Court held that method violated the one person, one vote constitutional mandate.333 The suit consisted of three causes of action:

(1) Jackson alleged that Nassau County’s weighted voting system, which uses the Banzhaf method, allocated votes to each municipality in a manner that was not directly proportional to the population of the municipalities and therefore violates on its face the “one person, one vote” principle mandated by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment; (2) Jackson asserted that the manner in which the Banzhaf Index is applied to the structure and voting functions of the Board of Supervisors is unconstitutional; (3) the use of the weighted voting scheme denied the fair and effective representation, especially in regards to the voting strength among African American and Hispanic voters in the County, and was in violation of Section 2 of the Federal Voting Rights Act. Jackson sought declaratory and injunctive relief to enforce the provisions of the First, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution as well as Section 2 of Voting Rights Act.334

The defendants stated that the votes allocated to each member of the Board of Supervisors was determined according to Section 104 of Nassau County Charter.335 The motion by the defendants Nassau County Board of Supervisors and the individual supervisors sued in their official capacities, for partial summary judgment, pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P.56, dismissing the first and second causes of action was denied.336 The parties involved advised the Court that there were no material issues of fact but only questions of law to be decided by the court with regard to the first and second causes of action. The court found that there were no material issues of fact in dispute, and that Jackson was entitled to partial summary judgment as a matter of law on the first and second causes of action. The case was set down for conference on April 26, 1993 at 9 a.m. to (1) determine the specific relief to be afforded Jackson in light of this; (2) discuss the status of the case; and (3) discuss future course of litigation and outstanding third cause of action brought under section 2 of Voting Rights Act.337 Julius Chambers represented the plaintiffs.

Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the District Court of the Eastern District of Arkansas in Jeffers v. Tucker. The defendants in this voting‐rights case moved for summary judgment, arguing that Jeffers had not met an essential element of the case. They also argued that Jeffers previously settled the case with them and this bars the Jeffer’s challenge to the redistricting plan. Both arguments are rejected.338

This action was brought to challenge an apportionment plan for Eastern Arkansas under the Voting Rights Act. Defendant moved for summary judgment. District Court held that questions of fact preclude summary judgment on compactness or contiguousness of districts proposed by Jeffers and that Jeffers never settled the case. Motion was denied. In a previous opinion addressing the § 1981 Arkansas Apportionment Plan, it was held that the then‐impending 1991 Arkansas Apportionment Plan would not go into effect until sixty days after the Apportionment Board adopted it so the Court could entertain any challenge by Jeffers in this case to such plan. The defendants moved for summary judgment against the challenge, brought by one group of plaintiffs to the 1991 Plan for Eastern Arkansas. They argued that Jeffers had not met one of the preconditions to show that the 1991 Plan violated the Voting Rights Act in Eastern Arkansas, or “Delta.”339 The 1991 Plan for the Delta establishes four House districts and one Senate district with African American‐majority voting age populations. These regions have a VAP of at least 60% which means that African‐ Americans will have a “super‐majority” in those districts, but Jeffers argued this diluted their voting strength and concentrated them into too few districts thereby minimizing the overall effect of African‐ American voters and the number of districts where African‐American voters can choose their candidate. Jeffers asked for remedy of this by adding one more House district and one more Senate district in the Delta. Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act prohibits a dilution of voting strength in the minority group, but Jeffers needed to meet the necessary pre‐conditions.340 It was found that there was no basis for the majority’s conclusion in Jeffers I that the then defendants violated section 2 in implementing the § 1981 Plan. In regards to the 1991 Plan, Jeffers did not establish the necessary preconditions to show that less opportunity to elect representatives of their choice was present.341  Julius Chambers represented Jeffers.

Brother Julius Chambers lost his case before the Court of Appeals in League of United Latin American Citizens v. Clements. An order granting rehearing en banc on February 11, 1993, the Voting Rights Act action was brought challenging methods for electing district court judges. The United States District Court for Western District of Texas granted relief and state officials appealed. Court of Appeals reversed. The Supreme Court reversed and remanded. On remand, Court of Appeals held that: (1) finding of vote dilution in eight counties was supported by evidence, (2) evidence did not establish racial bloc voting in Travis County, (3) state’s interest in its system did not outweigh the vote dilution, (4) evidence of partisan voting did not dispel finding of racial vote dilution. Affirmed in part and reversed in part.

The court had to decide whether the district court erred in concluding that the method by which Texas elects district court judges−as that method operates in nine counties−violated section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. The case was brought forth with respect to each of the nine Texas counties at issue, the population of relevant minority groups, total number of district court judges elected in the county, number of judges who were members of the relevant minority group and the percentage of the total number of district judges who were members of the relevant minority group. To prevail in the Voting Rights Act, section 2, the minority group had the burden to demonstrate that, because of a challenged scheme or practice, its members were unable to fully participate in the political process and their inability to do so is tied to race or color.342 The state of Texas and other defendants argued that the Voting Rights Act afforded minorities no relief in the context of the election of state district judges. The voters made a provision for one of the remedies available to the district court in this case, sub‐districting.343 The Court has affirmed the district court’s section 2 liability findings in eight of the nine counties.344 The dilution of the voting rights of minorities had become a cover for political factions, coalitions, and parties to gain advantage. The next step in the case was to vacate the panel opinion and take the case en banc.345 The court found the district court erred by holding that the at‐ large method of electing judges violated section 2 in any of the nine counties. Defendants prevailed by two routes. Either the evidence was insufficient to support a conclusion of vote dilution, or the proof of dilution was so meager as to be outweighed by the linkage interest as a matter of law. There was no evidence that white voters refused to support African American candidates. In all counties, white voters supported minority candidates of their preferred party. There was no evidence that minority candidates could not be elected in any county. In all counties, minority candidates were elected with support from the white community. In the one alleged racial incident in a judicial race, the minority‐preferred candidate, whom was African American, won with 61% of the white vote. Any racial appeal was rejected. Plaintiffs produced no substantial evidence to override the state’s substantial interest. Plaintiffs failed to prove dysfunction traceable to race or color in the political climate of contested counties. There is little indication that minority voters could not influence elections through the normal mechanisms of interest‐group democracy despite defeat of a minority‐ preferred candidate. Ending the county‐wide election of district judges would only reduce minority influence by denying minority voters any say in the election of a judge that by large odds will preside over any dispute of their own or their family. This perversity coupled with problematic proof of any dilution on account of race leaves the weighting of totality of circumstances so plain as to permit one outcome. Reversed.346 Julius Chambers represented the parties.

In 1994, a General Convention forum focused on the value of children’s lives and concern that they are exposed to violence, etc. via the media and advanced the idea that the Fraternity join together to mount a national crusade for children, in order “to get guns out of their hands and out of the hands of those who would kill them.” There was a need for government programs with the involvement and commitment of the community and for better drug treatment programs and for Health Care Reform.347 Moreover, Brother Joe C. Thomas again encouraged the participation of brothers in the action of the Commission on Racial Justice, and confirmed the commission’s continued involvement with some of the national organizations listed above. The Spring 1994 issue of The Sphinx featured an article written by Commission on Racial Justice chairman Brother Thomas on the history of race‐related issues in America. Among the issues presented was the decline in quality of life and economic opportunities among racial and ethnic people in the United States. Brother Thomas argued that the decline can be surmounted with cooperation between Alpha Phi Alpha and national organizations fighting against racial injustice. The article emphasized involvement and leadership not only within the Commission on Racial Justice of Alpha Phi Alpha, but also in national organizations such as the N.A.A.C.P. as a way of combating this injustice.348

In the Eastern region, Rho Sigma Chapter (University of Albany) held a Project Alpha program at a local high school and offered a skills workshop to raise African American consciousness.349 Omicron Omicron Chapter (University of the District of Columbia) celebrated twelve years of service to retirement homes, homeless shelters, and participation in the National Bone Marrow Program and Adopt a High School helping the inner city.350

Among Eastern region alumni chapters, Iota Alpha Lambda Chapter (Aberdeen, Maryland) was active in the Sickle Cell Anemia Walk‐A‐Thon, held Project Alpha and Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐ College programs for the school system, supported the N.A.A.C.P., Hospice, and a holiday program for the needy.351 Pi Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Prince George’s County, Maryland) hosted a Project Alpha program at a local junior high school, adopted a senior high school where brothers provided counseling and mentoring, and fulfilled a Christmas Wish List for senior homelessness. The chapter’s Education Committee sponsored workshops on financial aid and established an alliance with a Cub Scout pack. Brothers volunteered at a soup kitchen and adopted a length of highway.352

Zeta Zeta Lambda Chapter (St. Albans, New York) reached out to become family for young men in the community believing that the deteriorating family unit was a major contributing factor to social conditions that plagued many communities. Youth Into Manhood Right of Passage Program was a mentoring program that sought to involve young men in the community and provided for their school progress to be monitored. The chapter also supported a school in Jamaica, New York and a women’s resource center that provided housing for victims of domestic violence.353

Gamma Iota Lambda Chapter (Brooklyn, NY) sponsored a public symposium on South Africa partnering with the National Urban League, Chamber of Commerce and local churches, emphasizing business opportunities in the “new” South Africa.354

Eta Rho Lambda Chapter (Rochester, New York) held a Founder’s Day event with the theme “Addressing the Plight of African Americans in the Institutions of Higher Learning.” The chapter’s outreach included sponsoring feeding programs at local missions and financial support for programs for inner city youth.355 Alpha Theta Lambda Chapter (Atlantic City, New Jersey) had been providing scholarships for area high school students for ten years and worked with 700 youth through Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College.356 Gamma Iota Lambda Chapter (Brooklyn, New York) discussed the struggle for the hearts, minds, and bodies of African American males. It also commented on an African American Muslim rally attended by 12,000 men of African dissent as well as the potential of diversity within the membership based on religion, sexual orientation, and other ideologies.357

In the Southern region, Epsilon Nu Chapter (Stillman College) held an Adopt a Grandparent program, visited a nursing home, and adopted two elderly citizens in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.358 Beta Epsilon Chapter (North Carolina A & T State University) held an oratorical contest, a Voteless People are a Hopeless People program, prepared food baskets for the needy, helped churches with a program for the elderly, tutored the community’s young, and conducted a Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College program.359

Theta Sigma Chapter (University of Florida) organized a Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐To‐College program and mentored for a campus outreach program for “at risk” students.360

Iota Nu Chapter (University of Alabama at Birmingham) adopted a “My Place” day care and home for children from dysfunctional families, raised funds for and volunteered at a homeless shelter, participated in Caring Helps Another Make Progress program providing academic help and counseling for elementary students, and sponsored Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College and Project Alpha programs.361 Pi Delta Chapter (Livingston University) “involved females” in their Project Alpha program, a pilot program available to Upward Bound program students who studied at the university during the summer. The chapter also adopted a highway and visited nursing homes.362

Among Southern Region alumni chapters, Omicron Mu Lambda Chapter (Marietta, Georgia—1993 Chapter of the Year) started a Register to Read program where parents were called to ask them to limit television for their children and replace it with reading. The chapter’s Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program conducted college tours visiting Historically Black Colleges and Universities and provided mentoring. The chapter also held Martin Luther King, Jr. and Black History Month observations, a Project Alpha program, and an Alpha Outreach where brothers acted as role models and tutored. The chapter held Evening with African American’s Performing Arts and established the first African American Boy and Cub Scout troop in Cobb County.363

Beta Delta Lambda Chapter (Daytona Beach, Florida) held a Founder’s Workshop where the community discussed drugs, influence of media, importance of education, spiritual life, and other current issues of interest to African Americans.364 Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Jacksonville, Florida) held community goods drives for the holidays for needy families and distributed toys and contributed to the United Negro College Fund.365 Alpha Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Montgomery, Alabama) provided support for the YMCA and the N.A.A.C.P., as well  as provided scholarships to high school students.366

Theta Sigma Lambda Chapter (Lorman, Mississippi) participated in Little League baseball and softball, a Heritage Festival, an annual family picnic, and a highway clean‐up.367 Gamma Mu Lambda Chapter (Tallahassee, Florida) received national media attention when a Florida A & M University professor testified before  the Florida legislature concerning the Roseville Massacre which won compensation for its surviving victims and their families in the amount of $2.1 million.368

In the Southwestern region, Delta Sigma Chapter (Grambling State University) organized a meeting of community leaders about crime on campus, adopted a stretch of local highway, and held Little Brothers mentoring.369 In the Midwestern region, Epsilon Xi Chapter (Western Michigan University) held high school peer mentoring, a Go‐ To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program, Feed the Homeless, Thanksgiving Dinner, co‐sponsored with a local sorority, held a Non‐ Violent Racial Insensitivity March, and a program designed to heighten appreciation of African American women.370

Among Midwestern region alumni chapters, Iota Delta Lambda Chapter (Chicago, Illinois) held a Project Alpha program for sixty fourteen to eighteen year olds, held a conference focused on teen pregnancy, male roles, responsibility of teen fathers, and the importance of high goals and good moral standards. African Americans in the 21st Century was the theme of an oratorical contest for elementary students.371 Theta Lambda Chapter (Dayton, Ohio) implemented a Project Alpha which gave seminars to give teens a sense of responsibility. The chapter sponsored eight teens at Midwest Leadership Educational Citizen Institute at Kent State. The chapter visited the homeless, sponsored youth recognition programs, and youth attendance at cultural enrichment, sporting, and career planning events.372

Epsilon Zeta Lambda Chapter (St. Louis, Missouri) held a mentoring project in an elementary school where students in grades one and two received four twenty‐minute mentoring sessions. The chapter held group mentoring and gave individual attention to students emphasizing gang awareness for the Goal Line program.373 Theta Mu Lambda Chapter (Hazel Crest, Illinois) held a career day event where young people visited the work sites of brothers.374 Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) co‐sponsored its Eighteenth Annual Martin Luther King Lecture, sponsored forty students to attend the Leadership and Citizenship Institute, and participated in a food drive for thirty‐four families and in the Black Achievers Leadership Conference.375

In the Western Region, Omicron Theta Lambda Chapter (Heyward, California) sponsored a founder’s day program, participated in a Black History Month event at a local middle school and established a not‐for‐profit called “Home Base Alpha” to prepare youth for careers and employment.376

On the litigation front, Brother Julius Chambers won his case before the District Court of the Middle District of Alabama in Dillard v. City of Greensboro. African American voters filed an action challenging the at‐large election of city council under the Voting Rights Act. At one time, the City of Greensboro elected its councilmembers by at‐large elections. In 1987, in response to this lawsuit, the city conceded that its’ at‐large system violated § 2 of the Voting Rights Act. To remedy this violation, the court adopted a single‐member districting plan proposed by the city. Because the city’s plan was legislative and thus had to be “precleared” pursuant to § 5 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the court allowed the city to use the plan on an “interim” basis only. At the time that Greensboro was arguing that the court should adopt its plan, the city knew that it could agree to the Dillard’s plan submitted on December 11, 1991. Dillard’s plan would have been court‐ordered rather than governmentally enacted and, therefore, not subject to preclearance. Greensboro chose to pursue an interim plan and thereby risk non‐preclearance by the Attorney General.

Dillard filed a renewed motion requesting that the proposed plan be adopted following the Attorney General’s refusal to pre‐clear plans proposed by the city. Dillard claimed that under the system at‐ large, the political process was not as equally open to participation by African‐Americans to elect representatives of their choice. The District Court entered an order granting Dillard’s motion, but on the city’s motion for stay of order pending appeal, the District Court held that the order requiring the city to adopt the plan proposed by Dillard would not be stayed, given the city’s failure to show likelihood of success on merits and irreparable injury to Dillard and the plaintiff class if they were any longer denied the right to participate effectively in the political processes because of the election plan that violated § 2 of the Voting Rights Act. The Attorney General found that the opportunity for African American voters was constrained and electoral participation was reduced due to a history of discrimination and the city had provided no satisfactory explanation. Although the city was not required under the Voting Rights Act to adopt alternatives, it was found that the motion for the stay was meritless and the motion was denied. Julius Chambers represented the plaintiffs.377

After the apartheid laws were abolished in 1994 and new leadership rose to power in South Africa, Ambassador Dane F. Smith addressed the International Policy Forum at the Fraternity’s Eighty‐Ninth Anniversary Convention.378 Smith focused on how South Africa served as an example of overcoming barriers and electing new leadership without a violent civil war and instructed members to oppose efforts to make issues in Africa less urgent foreign policy concerns.379 Alpha Phi Alpha’s efforts to improve educational opportunities for African Americans also focused on combating critics of affirmative action.380 The Fraternity argued against the misunderstanding that certain jobs went to unqualified candidates due to racial quotas.381 In reality, members were aware that jobs were offered to less qualified white applicants, rather than to sufficiently qualified African American applicants.382 This gap motivated the Fraternity to keep fighting for affirmative action because the political and social landscape would not change overnight.383 At the Eighty‐Ninth Anniversary Convention in 1995, Brother Marc Morial, who was the Mayor of New Orleans at the time, spoke specifically about the challenges posed by the dissenters of affirmative action and emphasized that unity of civic, religious, and Greek organizations was critical to overcoming this obstacle.384

Some of Alpha Phi Alpha’s philanthropic projects included helping African countries in transition. At the Eighty‐Ninth Anniversary Convention, the brothers from Howard University presented a video about their trip to South Africa as part of a program called “Step Africa.”385 While there, the brothers worked in an area that had been previously segregated during the apartheid.386 The brothers started a project there that provided books and clothing to residents who were in poverty.387 In addition, Brother Ambassador Horace Dawson, director of International Programs at Howard University, counseled the Fraternity on establishing a partnership with a youth center in Botswana.388 The youth center assisted people who moved from rural areas into urban cities by providing them with a place to stay and training assistance for a smooth transition into urban life.389 At the Eighty‐Ninth Annual Convention in 1995, General President Davis focused on the Fraternity’s newly established World Policy Council to address issues facing the international community.390 Two months later, the Fraternity supported the Million Man March on Washington to bring attention to the plight of the African American man.391 However, this march received controversial press coverage, including a Saturday Night Live skit that prompted President Davis to write a demand letter asking for an apology.392 NBC subsequently issued an apology for the skit.393

In The Sphinx, attention was focused on the urgency of combating the Contract for America that could have a devastating impact on African Americans, the poor, and other people of color. Strategies needed to be developed to address the impact on programs including budget cuts. Republicans also attacked affirmative action. Alpha Phi Alpha needed to support and stand shoulder to shoulder with the Black Caucus. President Clinton’s representative stated that more African Americans needed to be involved in all levels of government and work with law enforcement. There needed to be a concerted response to the Republican takeover of Congress.394

In the Eastern Region, Alpha Chapter (Cornell University) held a Black Leadership program to emphasize the need for student political activism and also sponsored a women’s self‐defense workshop. The chapter also provided a tour for thirty to fifty local high school students to visit Washington, D.C. and visited nursing homes. Their program, Into the Streets, was dedicated to community service.395 Beta Chapter (Harvard University) held a cultural exchange program with South Africa–Step Afrika.396 Epsilon Pi Chapter (Norfolk State University) sponsored seminars on finances, AIDs awareness, understanding self, and affirmative action.397 Eta Chapter (Columbia University) held a Project Homeless project and participated in a March of Dimes Walk‐ A‐Thon.398

Rho Nu Chapter (Cambridge, Massachusetts) included students from Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Tufts University. One brother organized an N.A.A.C.P. chapter, another founded the prelaw society and Black Men’s Forum and mentored and tutored African American young males. The chapter also held Black History Month program with discussion on African/ African American/ and Caribbean relations.399 Sigma Chapter (Harvard University and Boston University) held clothes and food drives, a Walk‐A‐Thon for

Project Bread and the March of Dimes, monthly feeding programs for the homeless, and a symposium on Black Men’s Role in Society and Stereotypes.400 Omicron Eta Lambda Chapter (Washington, D.C.) partnered with a local high school.401

Among Eastern Region alumni chapters, Nu Lambda Chapter (Petersburg, Virginia) honored the new mayor of Hopewell, Virginia, a brother who had been a local high school coach.402 Kappa Phi Lambda Chapter (Columbia, Maryland) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐ College program.403 Kappa Iota Lambda Chapter (Willingboro, New Jersey) ran the Afri‐Male Institute with public and private funding. It targeted African American adolescents and featured social activities, mentoring, career counseling, and seminars on personal development. It also included Project Safe Harbor, a library resource and counseling center which had fifty participants. The chapter also had an On The Job With Alpha program, donated to the homeless and helped with a Boy Scout troop.404

Pi Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Largo, Maryland) adopted two high schools and tutored its students in academic subjects. It had an African American male achievement program and finances and supports a Career Day. The chapter also had service projects for the homeless and for road cleanups.405 Zeta Zeta Lambda Chapter (St. Albans, New York) sponsored Youth Into Manhood Training Right of Passage program for thirteen to sixteen year old black males to help develop a positive self‐image.406 Xi Alpha Lambda Chapter (Alexandria, Virginia) held an event for seventeen students who participated in its mentoring program.407 Omicron Delta Lambda Chapter (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) held a Voteless People are a Hopeless People voter registration drive, conducted elementary school mentoring, worked on a Project Alpha program, a senior citizen outreach, and a weekly radio show that discussed items of interest to the African American community.408

Gamma Iota Lambda Chapter (Brooklyn, New York) held a discussion of the new business and professional opportunities in the ‘new’ South with corporate sponsorship.409 Iota Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Silver Spring, Maryland) held a Founder’s Day event to encourage entrepreneurship and inventing. Iota Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Silver Spring, Maryland) celebrated twenty‐five years of service, Shaping Our Fathers While Honoring Our Past, it partnered with the N.A.A.C.P. to raise funds and fought to increase African American attendance at the University of Maryland. The chapter published a Black Business Directory and conducted business workshops, held tutoring sessions with churches, fundraising drives, and cultural enrichment programs for African Americans.410

In the Southern Region, Mu Alpha Chapter (Emory University) participated in programs for Habitat for Humanity, the Jerry Lewis Telethon, AIDs Walk, Hunger Walk, Atlanta Food Bank Food Drive and contributed to the Sickle Cell Foundation.411 Beta Zeta Chapter (Elizabeth City State University) raised money to provide therapy aids for a child with Cerebral Palsy.412 Iota Nu Chapter (University of Alabama) held Red Cross donor drives, participated in the March of Dimes Walk, a clothes drive and volunteered for the homeless, and tutored elementary school students. The chapter also sponsored  Project Alpha and Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College programs at local schools.413 Sigma Delta Chapter (Elon University) held a public presentation called Vision for Our Black Men. The chapter supported Special Olympics at the school and focused on the plight of the homeless with a Sleep Out and clothes drives.414

Among Southern Region alumni chapters, Beta Delta Lambda Chapter (Daytona Beach, Florida) provided scholarships for local high school students, conducted a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program, and hosted a lecture “Black Presence in the Bible” as part of a high school history program.415 Alpha Nu Lambda Chapter (Tuskegee, Alabama) partnered with Head Start for discussions of parenting, held workshops for Head Start Teachers, and hosted 140 Head Start  Students at the University.416

Beta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Jackson, Tennessee) held a  Head Start Male Initiative Project that targeted improved relations between Head Start students and father figures. The chapter participated in a Reading is King program. Forty African American youth participated in the Chaplin Leadership Workshop “Being Young, Black and Successful.” It also contributed to the American Heart Association.417 Theta Nu Lambda Chapter (LaGrange, Georgia) worked on the renovation of the Dawson Street School where they established the Alpha Multipurpose Center with space leased to community agencies that target ‘at risk’ people. The chapter also held teen pregnancy workshops and education and citizenship programs.418

Gamma Mu Lambda Chapter (Tallahassee, Florida) celebrated a brother who was the first African American elected countywide to the Leon County Commission and was now its chair.419 Kappa Lambda Chapter (Greensboro, North Carolina) mentored fifty high school students on family values, African American heritage, and respect for women. The chapter also participated in the March of Dimes Walk‐A‐ Thon.420 Omicron Kappa Lambda Chapter (Sumter, South Carolina) held the annual lakeside picnic with support from local churches for sixty area children aged six to twelve with recreational activities and brothers providing educational outreach.421

In the Southwestern Region, Kappa Kappa Chapter (University of Arkansas—Fayetteville) held an event at a local elementary school, adopted a Boy Scout troop, and supported the Special Olympics.422 Zeta Tau Chapter (East Texas State University) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program at a local high school, a Project Alpha program that focused on responsibility, and provided food for the needy during the holidays.423

Among Southwestern Region alumni chapters, Pi Lambda Chapter (Little Rock, Arkansas) was a partner in an educational program with the Little Rock School District, worked with the Boy Scouts, and contributed to the United Negro College Fund.424 Omicron Psi Lambda Chapter (Morgan City, Louisiana) participated in a program where brothers worked with youth in three parishes.425

In the Midwestern Region, Sigma Phi Chapter (Indiana University) brothers did repairs on the home of a local woman.426 Beta Mu Chapter (Kentucky State University) tutored students at a local day care center.427 Rho Upsilon Chapter (Denison University) held a mentoring program for high school students.428 Eta Eta Chapter (Western Illinois University) held a POWER Youth Outreach program for drug and alcohol awareness, and raised funds for scholarships.429

Among the Midwestern Region alumni chapter, Gamma Xi Lambda Chapter (Minneapolis, Minnesota) launched an SAT/ACT ten‐ week course for minority high school students. The chapter, the ‘architect’ of the Minneapolis Community Coalition Concept project, allowed community and business people to discuss lifestyle, parenting, and jobs.430 Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) awarded 150 scholarships for $125,000, with sixteen that year going to African American males. The chapter had a career day for high school students.431 Alpha Xi Lambda Chapter (Toledo, Ohio) expanded Project Alpha and awarded scholarships.432

In the Western region, Sigma Psi Chapter (University of Nevada, Las Vegas) held a fundraiser for scholarships and worked on service projects.433 Among the Western region alumni chapters, Zeta Pi Lambda Chapter (Seattle, Washington) held The Boyz II Men program for 100 young men with a frank dialogue about myths about African American men, youth crime, drugs and violence, and male responsibility for children and families.434 Kappa Alpha Lambda Chapter (Seaside, California) held prostate cancer screening.435 Iota Omicron Lambda Chapter (Colorado Springs, Colorado) held its Third Annual African American Leadership Conference for 450 African Americans aged six to twelve where brothers were role models in the community discussing social issues, careers and jobs. The chapter also participated in holiday events including a Kwanza celebration.436

Eta Sigma Lambda Chapter (San Jose, California) celebrated a teen center being named for a deceased brother who had been a youth specialist in San Jose for thirteen years. The chapter was a leader in a Project Alpha program and Project Olympics for disadvantaged youth. The chapter volunteered 2000 community service hours (sixty‐seven hours for each brother) with Project Alpha, Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐ To‐College, Boy Scouts, UNCF Walk, March of Dimes, Run for Literacy, Adopt a School, American Cancer society, Adopt a Family, and Senior Citizen events.437

On the International front, Iota Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Nassau, Bahamas) provided scholarships for Bahamian students.438 Iota Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Nassau, Bahamas) held a literacy mentoring program in a Bahama juvenile detention center, counseled ‘at risk’ students and focused on the educational development of the Bahamian people.439

In order to defeat stereotypes about affirmative action and celebrate the scholastic achievements of its members, Alpha Phi Alpha hosted its Scholarship Forum on July 12‐13, 1996 in New Orleans, Louisiana.440 President Davis opened the forum by stating unabashedly that the goal of the forum was to celebrate the scholarly accomplishments of the brothers.441 The forum showed that a large percentage of African American males defied the stereotypes of street life and crime.442 The meeting featured the achievements of Brother Charles Wesley, who had been a multi‐sport athlete and was one of the first African Americans to receive a PhD from Harvard.443

Consistent  with  this  focus,  the  Fraternity  had  been awarded $400,000 from the WK Kellogg Foundation for the physical, intellectual, spiritual, educational, and social development of African Americans aged three to nineteen. The program would have mentoring centers in fifteen cities targeting at least 100 African American males  for the three years funding is available, with the philosophy that every child needed a least one adult who cares.444 Among the long‐term goals of Alpha Phi Alpha was the creation of the Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Washington, D.C. National Memorial, and in 1996, Congress finally passed legislation approving the project.445

The World Policy Council met for the first time in January 1996 at Howard University.446 Brother Senator Brook suggested a broadening of the Fraternity’s historic interest in Africa to other continents and a fostering of relationships with established foreign policy organizations.447 He suggested topics such as: world  population control, the homeless, water, world hunger, health, global economy, disarmament, gun control, crime, drug and alcohol abuse, teen pregnancy, AIDS, elections in Haiti and South Africa, Middle East peace, ethnics in Africa and Asia, and location of hazardous waste landfills in predominantly African American and Hispanic communities.448 Brother Oates was appointed to provide staff support for the World Policy Council.449

The World Policy Council issued its first annual report in December 1996 with recommendations related to oppression in Nigeria under the regime of General Sani Abacha, “family friendly” government programs to strengthen the African American family, restoration of peace and stability in Liberia with the United States government providing greater assistance to the troubled country, support for the environmental justice movement, a resolution to the conflict in Bosnia, and presidential and congressional acknowledgment of a housing crisis with an appropriate solution to address it.450 The mission of the World Policy Council was to address issues of concern to the Fraternity, the African American community, the nation, and the world.451 It was to apply sustained and profound intellectual energy to understand and help resolve problems at the community, national, and international levels, to expand fraternal and public knowledge of such problems and to engage in public discussions about them.452

The General President urges “Get Out the Vote” in November,453 and the Fraternity’s reception for the Congressional Black Caucus was an opportunity to network and focus on outstanding legislative issues such as affirmative action, unemployment, discrimination, welfare reform, and the environment including the siting of hazardous waste facilities. It was said that the then upcoming November elections will be “life or death for the African American community.” The Fraternity’s Voteless People are a Hopeless People project must register voters and get them out to vote.454

In the Eastern Region, Psi Chapter (University of Pennsylvania) held voter registration drives, worked with a local radio station and worked on community outreach activities.455 Among alumni chapters, Kappa Phi Lambda Chapter (Columbia, Maryland) fulfilled the nationally mandated programs of Project Alpha, Boy Scouts, and Big Brothers Big Sisters, established the Coopers Senior Citizen Project and visited nursing homes. The chapter hosted a cable television show that reached twenty‐five cities aimed at stereotyping images of African American men. It also celebrated twenty years of service to the Howard County community where many brothers were involved in county politics.456

Zeta Iota Lambda Chapter (Trenton, New Jersey) participated in the Million Men March.457 Alpha Gamma Lambda Chapter (New York City) invited children from a settlement house for a day at the American Museum of Natural History.458 Eta Rho Lambda Chapter (Rochester, New York) purchased a building that was dedicated to a brother who was the first African American physician in the city. The chapter also conducted voter registration drives, tutored, awarded scholarships, and provided dinners for the elderly.459

Eta Theta Lambda Chapter (Wyandanch, New York) celebrated Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday where scholarships were awarded, provided college tours, and actively mentored 1500 high school students who participated. The chapter developed the Alpha Academy to make program participants aware of critical academic and social issues and direct children to success.460 Omicron Lambda Alpha Chapter (Washington, D.C.) held the Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐ College program targeting students at elementary schools to emphasize the positive aspects of excelling at school. The chapter also celebrated Physical and Mental Health Day, Kwanzaa, Career Day, and Black History Month, and provided college tours, worked with the Boy Scouts, participated in a Bike‐A‐Thon for at‐risk youth, and attended the Black Leadership Development Institute.461

Alpha Gamma Lambda Chapter (New York City) honored brothers in the military serving in Sarajevo.462 Delta Eta Lambda Chapter (Hampton, Virginia) held the Eleventh Annual Martin Luther King, Jr. commemorative breakfast with 700 attendees raising funds for Project Alpha and scholarships.463 Rho Xi Chapter (Saint Leo University) instituted a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College and a Project Alpha mentoring program, held food and clothes drives, and volunteered at a football tournament and with the Boys and Girls Club.464

Delta Beta Lambda Chapter (Hampton, Virginia) provided food and toys for the underprivileged during the holidays, held a fundraiser to support the chapter’s educational and scholarship programs, conducted Project Alpha workshops and participated in the Leadership Development Institute for high school students.465 Omicron Eta Lambda Chapter (Washington, D.C.) partnered with local high schools and elementary schools.466 Alpha Theta Lambda Chapter (Atlantic City, New Jersey) held a workshop for 600 students in grades seven through twelve in South New Jersey as part of the Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐ College program and introduced them to career educations and help with SAT preparation.467

In the Southern region, Beta Nu Chapter (Florida A & M University) was credited with developing several independent businesses in Tallahassee in the fields of videography and graphics. Brothers participated in the Million Man March to show the strength of the African American community. Brothers met each week with targeted youth aged ten to fourteen; they also tutored students, delivered meals to the elderly, and participated in the Florida A & M University Sickle Cell Anemia Chapter and the Martin Luther King March.468 Mu Alpha Chapter (Emory University) provided tutoring at numerous schools in the neighborhoods of Atlanta with brothers acting as mentors, peer assistants, and role models. The chapter participated in Step for Sickle Cell, Jerry Lewis Telethon for Muscular Dystrophy, AIDs and Hunger Walks, Habitat for Humanity, and the Red Cross.469

Alpha Beta Chapter (Talladega College) was represented at the Million Men March, participated in blood drives, Adopt a Highway, tutorial programs, Project Alpha, Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College and a Voteless People are a Hopeless People project. The chapter also funded a Head Start Male Initiative Program hosting breakfast for fathers and sons.470 Kappa Alpha Chapter (University of Alabama, Birmingham) held an “Uplift the Black Women” seminar, a Black Family Forum series, Shoot for Sickle Cell Basketball Tournament and outreach programs for at‐risk teens.471 Mu Zeta Chapter (University of North Carolina) joined with other fraternities and sororities to fund a home for a homeless woman and her family and worked with Habitat for Humanity.472

Among Southern Region alumni chapters, Zeta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Fort Lauderdale, Florida) performed community service in Broward County, Florida.473 Delta Delta Lambda Chapter (West Palm Beach, Florida) was awarded $10,000 from the Kennel Club of WPB to support chapter activities in the Men of Tomorrow Project that encourages students to continue their education, provides college tours, and offers scholarships. The chapter held educational seminars for students in grades six through twelve and donated to a homeless shelter.474 Omicron Lambda Chapter (Birmingham, Alabama) held a financial management workshop with 175 Head Start fathers and children attending a breakfast. The workshops covered wills, insurance, preparation of resumes, stress management, and credit.475

Omicron Tau Lambda Chapter (Aiken, South Carolina) held the Rites of Passage Program to provide mentoring and positive role models for African American adolescent males. The Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College program introduced career opportunities in computer science.476 Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Jacksonville, Florida) raised $30,000 for the United Negro College Fund to support the Go‐ To‐High‐School, Go‐to‐College program.477 Theta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Dothan, Alabama) held a Head Start event with 150 fathers and sons attending in a recreational environment. The chapter received a US/HHS grant.478 In the Alpha Nu Lambda Chapter (Tuskegee, Alabama) a brother was elected to the Macon County Commission.479 Omicron Kappa Lambda Chapter (Sumter, South Carolina) held a Kiddies Fun Picnic for 100 children at a lake that included recreational activities and motivational lectures.480

In the Southwestern region, Omicron Nu Chapter (University of Tulsa) held voter registrations, participated in the Red Cross Blood and Marrow Drive, the annual Martin Luther King, Jr. celebration, a Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐To‐College program, and food drives for the needy.481 Among alumni chapters, Eta Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Midland‐ Odessa, Texas) held a panel discussion on The Role of Predominantly Black Greek Letter Organization as We Approach the 21st Century. The focus was on political networking, economic empowerment, educational opportunities, the African American family, racism, and decision making. The chapter also helped prepare students for the Texas standardized testing.482 Beta Eta Lambda Chapter (Oklahoma City, Oklahoma) participated in a relief fund after the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building.483 Gamma Eta Lambda Chapter (Austin, Texas) participated in the Freedom Fair ’96 to register voters. A brother was recognized as one of twenty‐nine African American Male Role Models in Austin.484

In the Midwestern Region, Epsilon Chapter (University of Michigan) tutored at a local middle school.485 Among alumni chapter, Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) formed a housing component to provide suitable housing for low and moderate income families as part of the Akron Planning & Urban renewal; the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development awarded $11.4 Million to Alpha Phi Alpha for the project.486 Theta Xi Lambda Chapter (South Bend, Indiana) participated in the Million Man March and then held a Hundred Man March in South Bend. The chapter wanted to remember African American youth who did not enroll in college by mentoring them and encouraging them to pursue constructive goals.487 Iota Lambda Chapter (Indianapolis, Indiana) attended the Midwestern Regional Youth Leadership Institute.488 Iota Delta Lambda Chapter (Chicago, Illinois) conducted a Marching into Manhood program with lectures and workshops on teen pregnancies, a Project Alpha program that received strong corporate and media coverage and community involvement, and oratorical contests for inner‐city youth.489

In the Western Region, Mu Chi Chapter (California State University at Long Beach) held the Annual Spring Jazz Concert to fund scholarships, conducted voter registrations, participated in the Million Man March, hosted 140 inner‐city youth in an educational forum, hosted Boy Scouts and participated in the Sixteenth Annual Black Adoption Festival.490 Iota Psi Chapter (California State Polytechnic University, Pomona) assisted the Pomona Valley Hospital with its Kids Kare Fair that vaccinated 500 children, held clothes drives for the Salvation Army, visited local high schools with representatives of the National Society of Black Engineers and held a Martin Luther King, Jr. march and Black History Month program.491 Among alumni chapters, Zeta Sigma Lambda Chapter (San Diego, California) held the Academic Exchange Program (CAMP) for sixty‐six African American students who were paired with mentors to provide leadership and guidance to help them prepare to make college choices. The chapter also held a Martin Luther King, Jr. parade.492 Zeta Beta Lambda Chapter (Sacramento, California) hosted the North California African American Young Male Conference with 200 youths aged twelve to eighteen attending and participated in a Thousand Man March in Sacramento.493 Beta Psi Lambda Chapter (Los Angeles, California) held a fundraising event for the Endowment Fund for Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College with activities in Los Angeles.494

During his Inaugural Program on January 11, 1997, General President Wallace’s “Vision 2000: The Light of a New Day” platform challenged Alpha brothers to look toward the future with an emphasis on leadership and economic empowerment.495 As part of the accompanying Leadership Seminar, brothers attended an Economic Empowerment and Entrepreneurial Development workshop.496 General President Wallace wanted brothers to take away from the General Conventions “value‐added services that help them be better men and thereby better Alphas.”497 To accomplish this goal, he appointed a Brother Philip Jackson, Jr. to head a Training and Development Committee to produce material relating to fraternal issues as well as personal and professional skills.498

Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity has shown a commitment to community service throughout its long history, and as the organization moved into the 21st century, their work was largely focused on the future and mentoring the next generation of Alphas. Adrian L. Wallace became the Thirtieth General President of Alpha Phi Alpha with the platform “Vision 2000: The Light of a New Day.”499 In his inaugural address on January 11, 1997, General President Wallace reminded brothers that the vision of the young men who created the organization was “a work in progress, a challenge to the future, a challenge not just to manage change but to create it, to seize new opportunities.”500 With this focus on the future, General President Wallace named Brother Dr. Zollie Stevenson, Jr. as Director of National Programs.501 Brother Dr. Stevenson had partnered with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation to expand the Alpha Sankofa Project, named for an Akan word meaning “return to the past in order to succeed in the present and go forward in the future.”502 The project created mentoring relationships lasting at least five years between brothers and boys ages three to eighteen who were in single‐parent households or being raised by grandparents.503 The Sankofa Project incorporates a rites of passage component to “promote self‐esteem, encourage academic excellence, and plan for the future.”504 In his State of the Fraternity Address in 1997, newly elected General President Wallace named Brother John Carter project chairman, Brother Huel Perkins head of internal fundraising, and Brother Ambassador Andrew Young chair of external fundraising.505 At the Martin Luther King, Jr. project team meeting in March 1997, General President Wallace reflected on what an awesome responsibility it was to build the memorial, and stated that it must “reflect [Brother Dr. King’s] color blind love for humanity . . . capture his deep and abiding compassion . . . [and] reveal his inner strength.”506 The project team hoped to get approval for “Area One” which included the Washington Monument, reflecting pool, and Lincoln Memorial.507 Fundraising for the project began at the General Convention with each regional vice president instructed to name a Martin Luther King project chair and each college and alumni chapter given specific fundraising goals.508 The regional offices had raised $281,328.44 by May 1999.509

Along with leadership, economic empowerment has been a frequent theme at Alpha conventions. During the Ninety‐First General Convention in 1997, General President Wallace saw economic empowerment as the “next frontier for African American development” because it “holds the key to social, political, and educational empowerment.”510 He announced that Alpha Phi Alpha would host an Educational and Economic Development Forum in the Bahamas, July 30 through August 2, 1998.511 During the same Convention, on August 2, 1997, Brother Warren M. Thompson was invited to be the key note speaker for the Business and Economic Development Breakfast.512 Brother Thompson, president and chairman of Thompson Hospitality, the second largest minority‐owned franchise‐food operation in the country, encouraged brothers to seek out business opportunities in the private sector.513 The Convention addressed African American partnerships with African countries, African American/African political and economic empowerment, the homeless, drugs, violence and gang warfare, and the Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial. The issue of the Congressional investigation into the possible role of the Central Intelligence Agency in the sale of drugs in Los Angeles was also  brought to the fore.514

That year, the Commission on Racial Justice was renamed the Racial Justice and Public Policy Commission. Under General President Brother Adrian L. Wallace, this new joint commission was established from the long‐standing Commission of Public Policy and the relatively newer Commission on Racial Justice. The new Racial Justice and Public Policy Commission, chaired by Brother Norman E. W. Towels, issued a report submitted to General President Brother Wallace, with significant recommendations for the Fraternity. High on the list of recommendations was a study of affirmative action. Related to such a study, the commission suggested that areas of education and economics required more attention in the area of racial justice. Lastly, the commission recommended that all local chapters participate with community Parent‐Teacher Organizations, local school boards, and that chapters spearhead increased fraternal involvement and visibility in economic ventures.515

In the Eastern Region, Theta Iota Lambda Chapter (Springfield, Massachusetts) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program where business and professions discussed the value of college with local high school students.516 Kappa Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Landover, Maryland) held a Voteless People are a Hopeless People: Back to Basics event.517 Zeta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Fairfax and Loudon Counties, Virginia) donated to the needy during the holiday seasons.518 Rho Lambda Chapter (Buffalo, New York) contributed winter clothes for the needy.519 Zeta Iota Lambda Chapter (Trenton, New Jersey) sponsored monthly HIV/AIDs Support Dinners at local churches for AIDs clients and their families and made monetary contributions to churches.520

Gamma Sigma Chapter (Delaware State University) raised funds for scholarship, worked with the Department of Service for Youth, Children and Families in conducting mentoring programs to encourage children to finish school and attend college, and assisted in the Department’s childhood center.521 Among alumni chapters, Omicron Lambda Alpha Chapter (Washington, D.C.) participated in a joint program with another fraternity and joined with a sorority (Alphas N Deltas Together with Unity) to mentor youth. The chapter provided trips to museums, holiday giving to the needy, and took children to convalescent homes to interest them in the elderly. For the Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐To‐College program, brothers tutored high school students in math and science.522 Iota Alpha Lambda Chapter (Aberdeen, Maryland) brothers set up and served at a breakfast for the Sharing Table, a soup kitchen.523 Alpha Kappa Lambda Chapter (Roanoke, Virginia) hosted a speaker who asked brothers to perform leadership roles to create a positive vision for African American youth.524

Zeta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Reston‐Fairfax, Virginia) held a Toys for Tots party for disadvantaged children aged 1‐6.525 Alpha Theta Lambda Chapter (Atlantic City, New Jersey) held a Go‐To‐High‐School program with a day long career day for area students emphasizing the importance of setting goals.526 Kappa Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Landover, Massachusetts) tutored sixteen high school students to prepare them for the Maryland Math assessment exams that are a graduation requirement.527 Eta Theta Lambda Chapter (Hempstead, New York) provided college tours of forty Historically Black Colleges and Universities for local high school students (60% eventually enrolled), held SAT prep workshops and mentoring/tutoring programs. The Foundation also formed an Educational Foundation to finance its charitable efforts.528 Pi Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Brandywine, Massachusetts) hosted a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College Basketball Tournament, partnered with local schools to tutor students, donated computers, established a learning center and donated to families during the holidays.529

Iota Alpha Lambda Chapter (Aberdeen, Maryland) hosted a Go‐ To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College fundraiser with corporate assistance and worked on an Adopt a Highway project.530 Beta Sigma Lambda Chapter (Hartford, Connecticut) held two bone marrow drives, a holiday food drive, a coat drive, and donated to the Boy Scouts.531 Zeta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Reston, Virginia) provided scholarships and academic awards to local middle and high school students.532 Epsilon Iota Lambda Chapter (Suffolk, Virginia) established the Boone‐Turner Scholarship Foundation to support its mentoring for area youth and hosted a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College event with twenty‐five students attending.533 Zeta Iota Lambda Chapter (Trenton, New Jersey) launched the Develop a Stamp for Paul Robeson Project. The chapter worked with Anchor House, a resource center that provides academic classes, counseling, room, board, and physicals for youth. A brother that was also a dance instructor provided cheerleading training for local girls.534 Mu Theta Lambda Chapter (Providence, Rhode Island) held a Volunteer Income Tax Assistance Program for 300 indigent and low‐middle income families. The chapter sponsored a Rites of Passage program with weekly mentoring for local youth.535

In the Southern Region, Delta Gamma Chapter (Alabama A & M University) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College, Project Alpha and a Voteless People are a Hopeless People programs and worked with the Boy Scouts.536 Mu Zeta Chapter (University of North Carolina) held the annual Morrison Sleep‐Out for the Homeless, raised funds for in the Interfaith Council Community Home that provided temporary and emergency housing, and provided meals for 1000 people in crisis situations.537 Alpha Phi Chapter (Clark Atlanta University) held a Voteless People are a Hopeless People Voter Registration Festival that registered 500 new voters.538 Mu Xi Chapter (University of Southern Mississippi) worked with Head Start, the Pine Belt Boys and Girls Club, and local high schools to provide role models. The chapter also conducted a voter registration drive and an Alcohol Awareness Program and participated in the Adopt A Highway program.539

Kappa Alpha Chapter (University of Alabama, 1997 College Chapter of the Year) held a Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program. Brothers worked with the staff of the Center for Teaching in conducting study skills seminars with test taking strategies. Each brother was responsible for tutoring and mentoring a student. The program resulted in a high percentage of the students graduating from alternative schools into regular high schools. The chapter also conducted food drives, a forum on sex in the 1990s, voter registration drives, a vigil honoring Martin Luther King, Jr., a forum discussing the legalization of drugs, and a fundraiser for the Sickle Cell Foundation.540 Iota Delta Chapter (Florida State University) held a Becoming a Man program that provided tutoring, mentoring and role models for African American males in Tallahassee. The chapter co‐sponsored with March of Dimes a Drug Awareness Initiative and educated African American males about domestic violence, safe sex, and STDs.541

Among alumni chapters, Xi Gamma Lambda Chapter (Beaufort, South Carolina) mentored fifty young African American males at two elementary schools and one middle school, hosted a bone marrow registry event where 200 minority donors were registered and a voter registration drive where the number of African American voters were enrolled.542 Mu Pi Lambda Chapter (Brookhaven, Mississippi) worked with Walmart on a Back to School project to provide shoes to needy children.543 Tau Lambda Chapter (Nashville, Tennessee) worked with Head Start to mentor with the Metro Action Commission with the program fostering participation of ‘fathers’ and ‘sons.’ The chapter celebrated holidays with senior citizens and visited convalescent homes and public housing projects over the holidays.544 Xi Gamma Lambda Chapter (Beaufort, South Carolina) mentored local high school students and participated in a voter registration drive, a National Bone and Marrow Registration drive, and the American Red Cross “Prostate Cancer Awareness” program.545 Omicron Kappa Lambda Chapter (Sumter, South Carolina)                  held a Founder’s Day event called “Reclaiming the Community Through Family Nurturing and Service.”546 Theta Nu Lambda Chapter (LaGrange, Georgia) hosted 100 boys and girls at its multipurpose center. The chapter’s Male Initiative raised funds for Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College.547 Delta Kappa Lambda Chapter (Florence, South Carolina) sponsored a fishing trip for Head Start’s twenty‐five fathers and thirty sons and hosted a Black History Month program with Head Start. The chapter also hosted a Health Fair for Head Start at a local hospital and a holiday dinner at a homeless shelter and conducted a Neighbor To Neighbor Food Drive.548 Alpha Nu Lambda Chapter (Tuskegee, Alabama) honored Brother Ronald Williams who was elected mayor of the city.549 Beta Beta Lambda Chapter (Miami, Florida) awarded scholarships.550 Zeta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Fort Lauderdale, Florida) participated in Men of Tomorrow, Project Alpha, Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College, Black History Month, and Martin Luther King, Jr. programs. The chapter provided mentoring to local students and conducted a blood drive.551

In the Southwestern Region, Nu Psi Chapter (Louisiana State University) held the DREAMS year‐round enrichment project for at‐ risk youth. The chapter volunteered with the homeless, with ‘special kids’ and needy area residents and held a two‐week Camp Alpha for fourteen to sixteen year olds from single parent homes believed to be at‐risk. The chapter also targeted high school students in need who were able to take courses at the University.552 Delta Theta Chapter (Texas Southern University) donated to the Texas Gulf Branch of the Sickle Cell Anemia Association and participated in the Sickle Cell Anemia Camp. Brothers mentored youth aged nine to fifteen. The chapter hosted the Keep 5 Alive Cleanup Project that demonstrated to youth the necessity of taking personal responsibility for keeping their community clean.553

Omicron Nu Chapter (University of Tulsa) held a Go‐To‐High‐ School, Go‐To‐College program with the McClain Career Academy, coordinated a college‐career fair for twenty‐five high school students, and brought prospective students to visit the Admissions Office at the University. The chapter celebrated Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, held a panel discussion for Alpha week and worked with the Red Cross.554 Kappa Kappa Chapter (University of Arkansas) worked as substitute teachers at local schools.555 Omicron Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Corpus Christi, Texas) adopted a predominantly African American Boy Scout troop and provided mentoring, raised funds for scholarships, held toy drives and hosted a holiday party for the underprivileged. The chapter held a Job Readiness Assistance Project to assist at‐risk youth in finding employment and held Project Alpha seminars for the YMCA, churches, and a home for juvenile offenders.556

Among alumni chapters, Eta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Lafayette, Louisiana) played an active role in Big Brothers Big Sisters, hosted a fire prevention event, Black History Month, worked with Meals on Wheels, and adopted two local schools. Brothers did substitute teaching and acted as resource professionals in the mentoring program. The chapter and a local radio station helped raise money for predominantly African American schools and hosted a Drug and Youth Rally for 200‐350 middle and high school students that provided counselors to discuss drug abuse. Volunteers also worked in food kitchens and donated to shelters.557

Xi Tau Lambda Chapter (Dallas, Texas) held a Project Alpha program for 200 participants that focused on awareness of the male role in teen pregnancies that supported the educational and role modeling mission of Alpha Phi Alpha and also worked with the March of Dimes, the Boy Scouts, and Big Brothers Big Sisters.558 Sigma Lambda Chapter (New Orleans, Louisiana) held a Senior Salute event to honor high school students who were going the college.559 Beta Iota Lambda Chapter (Baton Rouge, Louisiana) hosted a Friends of Scouting fundraiser. One hundred boys attended the First Annual Bobby Phills Educational Awareness Basketball Camp. The chapter also participated in the 1996 Mock Election for high school students throughout the state.560

In the Midwestern Region, Iota Delta Lambda Chapter (Chicago, Illinois) held an event for Project Alpha where 200 African American males aged nine through twenty and parents participated, with the theme Marching into Manhood.561 Delta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Cleveland, Ohio) hosted a speaker who stressed the importance of working with the United Negro College Fund.562 Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) celebrated six students who had won appointments to the United States Naval Academy.563 Beta Lambda Chapter (Kansas City, Kansas) provided scholars as part of its Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program, worked with the Boy Scouts, hosted a tour of colleges for forty‐three high school students, conducted a voter registration drive that registered 1500. As part of Project Alpha, the chapter discussed teen pregnancy from a male perspective. The chapter also held food and clothing drives.564

Iota Lambda Chapter (Indianapolis, Indiana) hosted the Midwestern Region Youth Leadership and Citizenship Institute that targets African American youth aged eleven to nineteen and seventy‐ five students from chapters around the region attended. It included elements of Project Alpha with a presentation on sexual responsibility and leadership development. Attendees toured the world’s largest Children’s Museum that included an exhibit of the African storytelling tradition.565 Epsilon Lambda Chapter (St. Louis, Missouri) mentored twenty children aged seven to seventeen, held a Project Alpha event at the Children and Family Service Center focusing on staying in school, avoiding drugs and gangs, and setting personal goals, and participated in Adopt A Family.566

In the Western Region, Mu Chi Chapter (California State University—Long Branch) provided high school students scholarships through its Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program.567 Pi Kappa Chapter (California State University at Northridge) hosted Project Alpha and Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College projects as well as clothing and food drives for the homeless.568 Among alumni, Zeta Pi Lambda Chapter (Seattle, Washington) held Youth and Educational outreach programs and did in class tutoring at elementary schools.569 Pi Zeta Lambda Chapter (Las Cruces, New Mexico) launched its Go‐To‐ High‐School, Go‐To‐College program and worked to identify minority students in need of weekly tutoring.570 Eta Pi Lambda and Iota Zeta Lambda Chapters (Long Beach, California) joined together to hosted an event to recognize the achievement of African American fathers through an essay contest for essays written by middle and high school students.571

In addition to their work with Big Brothers Big Sisters and Head Start, Alpha Phi Alpha has had a long relationship with the March of Dimes Foundation (MOD). The Fraternity developed Project Alpha in the late 1970s to serve urban youth in Chicago.572 MOD joined the project in 1982 and provided materials to facilitate “Man‐to‐man Talks” between youth and positive roles models from college and alumni chapters.573 In 1998, MOD renewed their commitment to Project Alpha with a memorandum of understanding where MOD provided the Fraternity with $250,000 to update their curriculum, and Alpha brothers pledged to serve as trainers on the MOD national faculty, serve as MOD board members, and to continue each chapter’s participation in Project Alpha and WalkAmerica.574 The Fraternity’s overall contributions to the March of Dimes’ WalkAmerica increased ten‐fold in 1998.575

In addition to their efforts focused on youth, the brothers of Alpha Phi Alpha have been involved in a variety of philanthropic projects. The Fraternity launched their Building Foundation project,which is a nationwide neighborhood housing reinvestment project to help build homes for low‐ and moderate‐income families.576 With the goal of leading “a massive reinvestment campaign in order to protect, preserve, and promote African American communities throughout the nation,” in the spring of 1998, Brother Everett B. Ward and the Alpha Phi Alpha Building Foundation dedicated several single family homes.577 Known as Alpha Village, the homes were built on the former site of the Fraternity’s national headquarters in Chicago.578

In the Eastern Region, Gamma Iota Chapter (Hampton University) started their year by registering voters and encouraging people to vote in the November elections through the Fraternity’s “A Voteless People is a Hopeless People.”579 Among alumni chapters, Kappa Phi Lambda Chapter (Columbia, Maryland) awarded scholarships worth $8,000 to nine students in Howard County.580 Zeta Lambda Chapter (Newport News, Virginia) held its Third Annual Youth Education Program that featured fifteen corporate representatives and more than twenty representatives from colleges and universities. The program also featured career workshops and was attended by 1,200 young people in the area.581 Alpha Theta Lambda Chapter (Atlantic City) held its annual Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College seminar for youth in the area.582 Rho Lambda Chapter (Buffalo, New York) held a scholarship dinner for students at the University of Buffalo and helped with a service project benefitting the homeless in the area.583

In the Southern Region, Beta Delta Chapter (South Carolina State College) held its Education Week, where brothers visited schools and gave seminars on various topics, such as drug abuse and preparing for college.584 Kappa Beta Chapter (Mississippi State University) held a Kaplan Test Drive to assist students at the university to prepare for graduate school admission tests, including the GRE and LSAT.585 Delta Alpha Chapter (Claflin College) teamed up with the campus chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority and held a voter registration drive. They also visited the Juvenile Center in Columbia to talk to troubled  students and were mentors to a group of local middle school students.586 Theta Nu Chapter (University of South Carolina) held a community service project at the Boys and Girls Club and a blood drive. They also held a campus wide forum entitled “The Status of Black America.”587 Zeta Pi Chapter (University of Georgia) held programs aimed at underclassmen to give them an introduction to campus. They also presented a chapter scholarship to an outstanding freshman.588 Beta Upsilon Chapter (Alabama State University) talked to students at Fughes Elementary School about career goals and preparing for their future.589 Eta Phi Chapter (University of Tennessee) served as mentors to the Head Start program and presented seminars on the male role in teenage pregnancies.590

Among alumni chapters, Beta Nu Lambda Chapter (Charlotte, North Carolina) continued to sponsor Project Alpha and also sponsored a benefit concert for the United Negro College Fund and raised more than $5,000.591 Alpha Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Montgomery, Alabama) teamed up with the Christmas in April Foundation to help repair the homes of less fortunate individuals in the area by painting,  landscaping, roofing, and other various jobs.592 Delta Zeta Lambda Chapter (Orangeburg, South Carolina) made a contribution to Camp I Can, a camp for at‐risk children in the community.593 Nu Mu Lambda Chapter (Decatur, Georgia) teamed up with the local chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority to help prepare Thanksgiving baskets for the homeless in the area.594 Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia) held a scholarship awards ceremony, where they awarded scholarships to students in the area.595

Beta Omicron Lambda Chapter (Mobile, Alabama) established a scholarship fund for male students attending Bishop State Community College.596 Eta Iota Lambda Chapter (Athens, Georgia) held a career day for middle school students in the area and stressed the importance of education.597 Delta Phi Lambda Chapter (Tuscaloosa, Alabama) took part in both the March of Dimes’ and Sickle Cell Anemia Walk‐a‐ Thons.598 Tau Lambda Chapter (Nashville, Tennessee) presented scholarships to two students in addition to the seven they were already sponsoring.599 Delta Xi Lambda (Orlando, Florida) chapter held multiple community service programs: A Voteless People is a Hopeless People, Martin Luther King, Jr. scholarship luncheon, Thanksgiving Giveaway, United Negro College Fund, and the March of Dimes’ WalkAmerica among others.600 Omicron Lambda Chapter (Birmingham, Alabama) volunteered to help build homes for Habitat for Humanity and assisted in the organization’s “Building Blitz.”601

In the Midwestern Region, Pi Sigma Chapter (Aurora University) won multiple fraternity awards for their various community service projects, including a Thanksgiving Day feeding, and taking part in a Catholic Charities Mentoring Program.602 Among alumni chapters, Delta Chi Lambda Chapter (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) planned a church visitation program to show that brothers stand for religious principles and ideals. They also planned to create a chapter Business Center to help with the establishment and expansion of businesses.603 Alpha Rho Lambda Chapter (Columbus, Ohio) was awarded a grant from Ohio’s Commission on Minority Health to develop prevention programs in the African‐American community.604

Gamma Lambda Chapter (Detroit, Michigan) continued to serve the city of Detroit by hosting a voter registration drive at the Michigan State Fair. The brothers also had a mentoring program for inner city youths.605 Sigma Lambda Chapter (New Orleans, Louisiana) held its annual Scholarship Golf Tournament as part of the Fraternity’s national Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program.606 Pi Lambda Chapter (Little Rock, Arkansas) brothers sponsored four young men for the Southwest Region’s Youth Leadership Institute at Langston University.607 Eta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Monticello, Arkansas) brothers held a seminar on career options and preparation and also held a banquet recognizing outstanding African‐American women in the area.608

In the Western Region, Omicron Theta Lambda Chapter (Oakland, California) organized a clothing drive for a non‐profit organization in the area. They also donated $100 in cash to help pay for basic amenities. They were featured in an Oakland community newspaper for their efforts.609 Beta Psi Lambda Chapter (Los Angeles, California) donated to the United Negro College Fund and awarded six $1,000 scholarships to college students. They also awarded three more scholarships with the help of the local N.A.A.C.P. branch.610 Beta Xi Lambda Chapter (Omaha, Nebraska) held a luncheon for students in the area. They presented certificates of achievement to more than forty junior high students, twelve plaques for graduating seniors with a 3.0 GPA, and presented five students with scholarships.611 Eta Sigma Lambda Chapter (San Jose, California) held a two‐day Project Alpha program and linked its activities to the American Lung Association’s Project Unity.612 Mu Sigma Lambda Chapter (Culver City, California) held multiple service projects in the Los Angeles area, including a canned food drive, Christmas toy drive, and a voter education project.613 Gamma Chi Lambda Chapter (San Francisco, California) held a conference on teenage pregnancy at Mount Zion Medical Center.614

On the International front, brothers traveled to the Bahamas to celebrate the nation’s 25th anniversary. This was done alongside the Fraternity’s Educational and Economic Development Forum that was held in the country’s capital city. In addition, the Iota Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Nassau, Bahamas) was recognized for its service in the community, including their assistance with the Red Cross of the Bahamas.615

The brothers of Alpha Phi Alpha honored their commitment, and in 1999, only their second year of participation with the March of Dimes, the Fraternity raised the most of any traditionally African American Greek Letter organization, and had the fourth highest number of walkers among any group participating.616 In his “President’s Letter” in The Sphinx, the General President described the Fraternity’s history, including the evolution of its service. He ended with a description of the Fraternity’s Million Dollar Fund Drive and the monetary contributions to many African‐American organizations, such as the N.A.A.C.P. and the United Negro College Fund.617 Not surprisingly, in his State of the Fraternity Address, the General President talks about the Fraternity’s service programs moving forward. He talked about a collaboration with the March of Dimes organization to institute the newly revised Project Alpha program and launching their voter registration program for the 2000 elections. He also described the importance of personal and professional development at the end of his speech.618 On other fronts, a joint Fraternity task force comprised of the Martin Luther King Memorial team, representatives from the Commission on Fine Arts, the National Park Service, and the National Capital Planning Commission, met on April 6, 1999 to analyze four potential sites for the memorial.619 The proposed sites were the Tidal Basin, East Constitution Gardens, West Constitution Gardens, and Lincoln Steps.620

In the Eastern Region, Omicron Omicron Chapter (University of the District of Columbia) served meals to the homeless at the So Others Might Eat Thanksgiving Day program. They also mentored boys and girls in area homes and shelters.621 Xi Zeta Chapter (Longwood College) performed many service projects on the campus and in the community. Programs included: Project Alpha, Big Brothers Big Sisters, and mentoring programs among others.622 Xi Zeta Chapter (Longwood College) held a Black History Quiz Bowl Tournament and allowed brothers to tell students about the importance of a quality education.623 Among alumni chapters, Zeta Lambda Chapter (Newport News, Virginia) initiated and sponsored projects for the community including projects with the Boys and Girls Club of Greater Hampton Roads and mentoring local children through the Fraternity’s Go‐To‐High‐School, Go‐To‐College program. The chapter also participated in voter registration and drove people to the polls in local and state elections.624 Alpha Gamma Lambda Chapter (New York City) participated in the WalkAmerica and put on Project Alpha in conjunction with the March of Dimes foundation.625 Kappa Phi Lambda Chapter (Columbia, Maryland) discussed various issues, including societal, legal, and health consequences of teenage pregnancy with middle schoolers through Project Alpha.626 Eta Zeta Lambda Chapter (Westchester, New York) held its annual scholarship dinner and participated in a local college fair on the campus of Purchase College of the State University of New York.627

Pi Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Largo, Maryland) held a program on citizenship and discussed the struggles African‐Americans have gone through in their fight for being recognized as citizens.628 Theta Iota Lambda Chapter (Springfield, Massachusetts) delivered Thanksgiving baskets to needy families in the area.629 Iota Alpha Lambda Chapter (Aberdeen, Maryland) held a scholarship banquet and a ball that raised money for their scholarship fund.630 Delta Lambda Chapter (Baltimore, Maryland) collected more than $1,500 for the township of Princeville, North Carolina, which was completely destroyed by Hurricane Floyd. They also assisted the brothers of the Epsilon Sigma Lambda chapter in helping the town by sending cleaning supplies including detergent and paper towels.631

Beta Alpha Lambda Chapter moved to Baltimore and hosted a panel discussion at Morgan State University that talked to incoming freshmen about the challenges of college. The event was attended by both freshmen and their parents.632 Kappa Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Landover, Maryland) held its scholarship awards ceremony and gave scholarships to students in Prince George’s County. The event provided more than $118,000 in scholarships.633 Eta Theta Lambda Chapter (Freeport, New York) held a bus tour of Historically Black Colleges and Universities and provided mentoring and SAT prep for at‐risk kids in the area.634

In the Southern Region, Zeta Mu Chapter (Georgia State University) took part in a telethon for Jerry Lewis Muscular Dystrophy and an event where college students spoke to middle schoolers about the importance of college education.635

Chi Chapter (Meharry Medical College) conducted voter registrations, hosted Project Alpha, and donated food to the needy.636 Theta Nu Chapter (University of South Carolina) sponsored a student who was struggling to meet the college financial obligations, held a voter registration drive and became the first NPHC organization to win the school’s Carolina Community Service Award for their efforts.637 Omicron Iota Lambda Chapter (Columbia, South Carolina) held a college fair that was attended by hundreds of students in the area. They also mentored some of the local Boy Scouts.638 Nu Zeta Lambda Chapter (Anchorage, Alaska) held many service events over the past year.639

Zeta Mu Chapter (Georgia State University) took part in the HandsOn Atlanta Phone‐a‐Thon to get pledges for community involvement in outreach programs in the Atlanta area.640 Mu Alpha Chapter (Emory University) participated in many service events such as Habitat for Humanity and the AIDS Walk Atlanta.641 Delta Beta (Bethune‐Cookman College) and Tau Gamma (Embry‐Riddle Aeronautucal University) Chapters teamed up frequently to hold service events at local junior and senior high schools.642 Zeta Pi Chapter (University of Georgia) held a program that brought together various leaders on campus to talk about issues such as Greek life and diversity.643

Among alumni chapters, Beta Omicron Lambda Chapter (Mobile, Alabama) awarded certificates and scholarships to students at Bishop State Community College.644 Nu Mu Lambda (Decatur, Georgia) and Mu Alpha (Emory University) Chapters combined for their “100 Hugs from Alpha” program that gave teddy bears to children fighting diseases and other health challenges.645 Omicron Lambda Chapter (Birmingham, Alabama) held its scholarship ball and provided more than $50,000 in scholarships for college students since its inception.646 Xi Zeta Lambda Chapter (Moss Point and Jackson County, Mississippi) helped the Salvation Army during the holiday season.647

Delta Theta Lambda Chapter (Huntsville, Alabama) participated in the March of Dimes WalkAmerica and raised over $1,000.648 Phi Lambda Chapter (Raleigh, North Carolina) held a showcase for talented high school students from the local counties and the proceeds went to various organizations including March of Dimes and the chapter’s scholarship fund.649 Zeta Eta Lambda Chapter (Greenville, North Carolina) held multiple service projects including its ongoing voter registration and education program and a one‐on‐one mentoring project with young at‐risk African American males.650 Beta Omicron Lambda Chapter (Mobile, Alabama) held a blood drive and gave awards to four local eighth graders.651

In the Southwestern Region, Delta Sigma Chapter (Grambling State University) held a week long voter registration drive as part of A Voteless People is a Helpless People. They also invited high school students to the campus to give them tours and answer questions about college and participated in a mentoring program with the Boy Scouts of America.652 Among alumni chapters, Xi Kappa Lambda Chapter (Houston, Texas) participated in a Summer Youth Lock‐In with the Big Brothers Big Sisters.653 Eta Psi Lambda Chapter (Tucson, Arizona) held its scholarship luncheon for twenty African American high school seniors.654 Beta Iota Lambda Chapter (Baton Rouge, Louisiana) helped convert an old building into a functioning building they called “The Alpha Center.” The chapter now uses the space for their chapter meetings but also to help stimulate goodwill in the community. They hold many different programs in the space for both teens (ACT  tutoring and teen parenting workshops for instance) and adults alike (community awareness workshops on issues such as healthcare and first‐time home buying for instance).655

Theta Delta Lambda Chapter (El Paso, Texas) held a family law seminar for locals in the area and participated in a scholarship reception that awarded scholarships worth more than $15,000.656 Eta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Lafayette, Louisiana) participated in many service projects including Thanksgiving basket donations, voter registration drives, and helped with a Big Brothers Big Sisters picnic among others. They also awarded three scholarships to kids in the area.657 Delta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Shreveport, Louisiana) participated in a Sickle Cell Anemia Softball tournament that served to raise money for sickle cell research and educate people about it as well.658

In the Midwestern Region, Kappa Chapter (Ohio State University) held some service projects as part of their homecoming week, including a computer literacy and a fitness workshop.659 Delta Sigma Chapter (Grambling State University) participated in a voter registration campaign during freshman orientation and also donated turkeys and perishable food items to needy families during the holiday season.660 Alpha Pi Chapter (University of Louisville) held workshops for first to sixth grade children who were behind in math and reading. The brothers also served as facilitators for programs that taught kids about various issues, such as the importance of education and the negative aspects of street life.661

Among alumni chapters, Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) hosted a 5K canal run, walk, or crawl, where more than fifty people participated to raise money for scholarships for local kids.662 Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) held many successful service events over the year. They held a Beautillion project that raised nearly $160,000 in charity funds, an increase from the $155,000 raised in the previous year. They also held an Alpha Lite Program, which is designed to mentor high schoolers in the format of workshops facilitated by accomplished African‐Americans.663 Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Glen Ellyn, Illinois) adopted “the Potter’s House,” a program that provides live‐in counseling for men addicted to drugs and involved in gang activities. The program has helped almost 1,000 young men and gets funding from local churches and some from the state and federal government.664 Epsilon Lambda Chapter (St. Louis, Missouri) held events to raise money for college scholarships.665

In the Western Region, Alpha Epsilon Chapter (University of California−Berkeley) organized a camp for at‐risk youth across the San Francisco area.666 Gamma Xi Chapter (University of California−Los Angeles) had a Voteless People is a Hopeless People campaign where brothers registered people and educated people about voting in the Los Angeles area.667 Alpha Delta Chapter (University of Southern California) held a scholarship pageant, held a clothing and food drive, and held an event honoring the African‐American Women of USC.668 Among alumni chapters, Theta Pi Lambda Chapter (Las Vegas, Nevada) held a golf tournament where they raised more than $12,000 to help fund educational programs and scholarships in the area. They also awarded eight scholarships to high school graduates in the area.669

1 ROBERT L. HARRIS, THE HISTORY OF ALPHA PHI ALPHA: A TRADITION OF LEADERSHIP AND

SERVICE 114 (2014).

2 Id.

3 Id.

4 Id.

5 Id.

6 Id. at 143.

7 Id. at 143.

8 Id. at 162.

9 Id. at 162.

10 Id. at 112.

11 Id. at 112.

12 Id. at 109.

13 Id. at 108.

14 Id. at 108.

15 Id. at 109–10.

16 Id. at 112.

17 Id. at 112.

18 Id. at 110.

19 Id. at 110.

20 Id. at 110–11.

21 Howard University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 28.

22 Boston U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 29.

23 New York, NY, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 32.

24 Brown University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 36.

25 Lincoln University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 54‐55.

26 State U of NY, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 26.

27 Delaware State College, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 27.

28 Boston, MA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 28.

29 Baltimore, MD, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 28‐29.

30 Prince William Country, VA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 30.

31 Stamford, CT, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 31.

32 Richmond, VA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at31‐32.

33 Washington D.C., THE SPHINX, Spring 1990 at 32‐33.

34 Petersburg, VA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990 at 33.

35 Washington D.C., supra note 33, at 34.

36 Pittsburg, PA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 35‐36.

37 Newport News, VA, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 41.

38 Freeport, NY, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 42.

39 Richmond, VA, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 43.

40 Atlantic City, NJ, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 26.

41 Buffalo, NY, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 28.

42 Florida Memorial College, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 56.

43 Auburn University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 57‐58.

44 Duke University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 58.

45 Alabama A&M University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 59‐60. 46 North Carolina A&T State U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 60. 47 Florida A&M University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 60‐61.

48 U of South Florida, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 61‐62.

49 Memphis State University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 62.

50 Clemson University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 63‐64.

51 College Chapter of the Year, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 11‐12.

52 Orlando, FL, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 52.

53 University of Mississippi, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 30‐31, 35. 54 Bethune‐Cookman College, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 35‐36. 55 Johnson C. Smith U, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 35‐36.

56 Mercer University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 37‐38.

57 Tuskegee University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 38.

58 Alumni Chapter of the Year, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 15‐16.

59 Miami, FL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 56‐57.

60 Florence, SC, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 57.

61 Chattanooga, TN, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 58.

62 Pensacola, FL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 59.

63 Ocala, FL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 62‐63.

64 Fayetteville, NC, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 46‐47.

65 Daytona Beach, FL, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 47‐48.

66Nashville, TN, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 48‐49. 67 Charlotte, NC, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 49‐50. 68 Tuskegee, AL, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 50.

69 Columbia, SC, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 50‐51.

70 Montgomery, AL, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 51‐52.

71 Lakeland, FL, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 30.

72 Tallahassee, FL, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 38‐40.

73 Ocala, FL, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 40.

74 Little Rock, Arkansas, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 40.

75 University of New Orleans, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 64‐65.

76 Dillard University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 66‐67.

77 University of Houston, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 67.

78 Arkansas Tech University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 41‐42.

79 Northeast Louisiana U, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 42.

80 Southern University at New Orleans, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 42‐43.

81 University of Texas at Austin, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 43‐44.

82 Leesville/Ft. Polk, LA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 64.

83 Shreveport, LA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 65.

84 Houston, TX, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 66.

85 Little Rock, AR, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 53.

86 Port Arthur, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 44‐45.

87 University of Michigan, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 53.

88 Northern Illinois U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 55‐56.

89U of Arkansas‐Pine Bluff, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 65‐66.

90 Lewis University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 44‐45.

91 Pontiac, MI, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 46.

92 Ohio State University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 28.

93 Purdue University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1990, at 29. 94 Glen Ellyn, IL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 53. 95 Akron, OH, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 54.

96 Id. at 43.

97 Bluefield, WVA, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 45.

98Honolulu, Hawaii, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 68.

99 Colorado Springs, CO, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 68‐69.

100 Compton, CA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 69.

101 Tucson, AZ, THE SPHINX, Summer 1990, at 54.

102 Frankfurt, West Germany, THE SPHINX, Spring 1990, at 33‐34.

103 Dillard v. Town of Louisville, 730 F. Supp. 1546 (M.D. Ala. 1990).

104 Gonzalez v. Home Ins. Co., 909 F.2d 716 (2nd Cir. 1990).

105 Missouri v. Jenkins, 495 U.S. 33 (1990).

106 Id. at 34.

107 Id. at 35.

108 Parents for Quality Educ. v. State of Ind., 753 F. Supp. 733 (N.D. Ind. 1990).

109 Price v. Austin Indep. Sch. Dist., 729 F. Supp. 533,534 (W.D. Tex. 1990).

110 Spencer v. Casavilla, 903 F.2d. 171 (2nd Cir. 1990).

111 Women’s Equity Action League v. Cavazos, 906 F.2d. 742, 743 (D.C. Cir. 1990).

112 Id. at 744.

113 Id. at 746.

114 Id. at 751.

115 Id. at 751.

116 Id. at 752.

117 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 118.

118 GENERAL CONVENTION REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 89 (1991).

119 Chisom v. Roemer, 501 U.S. 380 (1991).

120 Gentile v. Cty. of Suffolk, 926 F.2d. 142 (2d Cir. 1991).

121 Houston Lawyers’ Ass’n v. Atty. Gen. of Texas, 501 U.S. 419 (1991).

122 Woods v. Ficker, 768 F. Supp. 793, 793 (N.D. Ala. 1991).

123 Id.

124 HARRIS, Supra note 1, at 124.

125 Id. at 124.

126 Id. at 125.

127 Id. at 95.

128 Id. at 87.

129 Id. at 142.

130 Id. at 142.

131 Miami Revisited, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 28‐29.

132 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 134.

133 Id. at 122.

134 GENERAL CONVENTION REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 88 (1992).

135 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 146.

136 Id. at 146–47.

137 Id. at 147.

138  Id.

139  Id.

140 Vision Alpha’s Tomorrow, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 19.

141 Public Policy, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 27‐30.

142 Cornell University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 25.

143 University of Delaware, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 25, 33. 144 Penn State University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 28. 145 University of Buffalo, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 29.

146 Virginia Polytechnic University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 29, 35.

147 State University of New York, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 35. 148 University of Marlyand, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 35‐36. 149 Monmouth College, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 36‐37.

150 State University of New York, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 36.

151 Virginia Commonwealth University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 13‐14.

152 Adelphi University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 14.

153 Brooklyn, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 23.

154 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 24.

155 Columbia, Maryland, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 24.

156 Silver Spring, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 24.

157 Atlantic City, NJ, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 13.

158 Philadelphia, PA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 33‐34.

159 Norwalk, CTL, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 26. 160 Danville, VA, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 26‐27. 161 Patterson, NJ, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 27.

162 Roanoke, VA, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 28.

163 Baptist College, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 36.

164 Tennessee State University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 38.

165 Emory University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 38‐39.

166 Vanderbilt University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 39‐40.

167 Clark Atlanta University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 40.

168 Johnson C. Smith University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 41.

169 Tennessee Tech University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 41‐42.

170 South Carolina State University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 42. 171 North Carolina Central University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 34 172 Alabama State University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 43.

173 Wake Forest University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 43‐44.

174 Winthrop University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 44.

175 North Carolina Central University, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 36. 176 Alumni Chapter of the Year, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 30, 32. 177 Tampa Bay, FL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 36‐37.

178 Marietta, Georgia, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 37‐38.

179 Clearwater, Florida, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 38.

180 Birmingham, Alabama, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 39.

181 Mobile, AL, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 39.

182 Jacksonville, FL, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 40.

183 Jackson, TN, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 40.

184 Loyola Universtiy, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 40.

185 Langston University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 42.

186 Arlington, Texas, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 42‐43.

187 Grambling State University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 44‐45. 188 Sam Houston State University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 46. 189 Xavier University of Louisiana, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 36‐37. 190 Alumni Chapter of the Year, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 24, 33.

191 Glen Ellyn, Illinois, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 34.

192 Louisville, KY, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 35.

193 Indianapolis, IN, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 35.

194 Kansas City, MO, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 35‐36. 195 Fayetteville, Arkansas, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 42. 196 Little Rock, AR, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 40‐41.

197 El Paso, TX, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 45‐46.

198 Kansas University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 34.

199 Xavier University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 41‐42.

200 University of Michigan, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 38.

201 College Chapter of the Year, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 25, 42.

202 Glen Ellyn, Il, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 38.  203 Iowa City, Iowa, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 39. 204 Akron, OH, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 14‐15.

205 Cleveland, OH, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 15‐16.

206 Indianapolis, IN, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 35.

207 Vallejo, CA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 44.

208 California State University¸ in THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 37‐38.

209 San Francisco, CA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 43.

210 Hayward, CA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 43‐44.

211 San Diego, California, THE SPHINX, Spring 1992, at 44‐45.

212 Los Angeles, CA, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 46‐47.

213 San Diego, CA, THE SPHINX, Summer 1992, at 47.

214 Culver City, CA, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 37.

215 Santa Ana, CA, THE SPHINX, Fall 1992, at 38.

216 Lee v. Etowah Cty. Bd. Of Educ., 963 F.2d. 1416 (11th Cir. 1992).

217 Id. at 1425.

218 Id. at 1426.

219 Miss. State Chapter Operation Push v. Mabus, 788 F. Supp 1406, 1407 (N.D. Miss. 1992).

220 Id. at 1408.

221 Id.

222 Id. at 1409.

223 Id.

224 Id. at 1424.

225 Patterson v. Newspaper and Mail Deliverers’ Union, 797 F. Supp. 1174 (S.D.N.Y. 1992).

226 Id. at 1179.

227 Id. at 1185.

228 Id.

229 Id.

230 Sassower v. Field, 973 F.2d 75, 76 (2d Cir. 1992).

231 Id. at 79.

232 Id. at 81.

233 Id.

234 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 126–27.

235 Id. at 128–29.

236 Id. at 134.

237 Id.

238 Id. at 111.

239 Id.

240 Id.

241 Id. at 118.

242 Id. at 142.

243 Id.

244 Id.

245 GENERAL CONVENTION REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 74 (1993).

246 Alpha Invests, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 29.

247 Mu Phi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 47‐48.

248 Cornell University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 17‐18.

249 Towson State University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 17.

250 Suny/Brockport, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 18.

251 Suny/Oswega, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 18.

252 Rochester Institute of Technology, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 18.

253 Mu Sigma, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 43.

254 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 18.

255 Nu Kappa, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 43.

256 Delta Epsilon, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 43.

257 Gamma Iota, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 44.

258 Philadelphia, PA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 16. 259 Willingboro, NJ, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 16‐17. 260 Washington, DC, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 17.

261 Iota Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 42.

262 Nu Omicron Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 42.

263 Xi Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 42.

264 Zeta Epsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 43. 265 Alcron State University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 20. 266 Morris Brown College, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 28.

267 Livingston University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 28‐29.

268 Tampa, FL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 29.

269 Delta Phi, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 46.

270 Nu Mu, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 46.

271 Mu Zeta, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 46. 272Kappa Beta, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 46. 273Beta Nu, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 46‐47.

274 Delta Gamma, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 47.

275 Sigma Tau, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 47.

276 Alpha Phi, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 48.

277 Zeta Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 45. 278 Zeta Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 45. 279 Nu Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 45.

280 Winston‐Salem, NC, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 18‐19.

281 Oxford, Mississippi, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 20.

282 Sheffield, AL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 28.

283 Clearwater, FL, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 20.

284 Eta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 36‐37.

285 Nicholls State University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 30.

286 Southern University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 30.

287 Delta Sigma, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 47.

288 Zeta Chi, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 49.

289 Eta Mu, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 49.

290 Little Rock, Arkansas, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 29. 291 Wichita Falls, TX, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 29‐30. 292 Pi Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 49.

293Dallas/Ft. Worth, TX, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 49.

294 Bradley University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 19.

295 Theta Theta, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 44.

296 Sigma Phi, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 44.

297 Tau, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 44.

298 Nu Delta, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 45.

299 Beta Mu, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 45.

300 Detroit, MI, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 19.

301 Mu Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 44.

302 Nu Sigma, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 46.

303 Eta Sigma, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 49.

304 Tucson, AZ, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 30. 305 San Jose, CA, THE SPHINX, Spring 1993, at 30. 306 Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 48.

307 Pi Rho Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1993, at 48.

308 Butts v. City of New York Dept. of Housing, 990 F.2d. 1397 (2d Cir. 1993).

309 Id. at 1400.

310 Id. at 1412.

311 Id. at 1413.

312 Charles v. Garrett, 12 F. 3d 870 (9th Cir. 1993).

313 Id. at 871.

314 Id. at 872.

315  Id.

316  Id.

317  Id.

318 Id. at 873.

319 Id.

320 Id. at 875.

321 Dillard v. City of Elba, 863 F. Supp. 1150 (M.D. Ala. 1993).

322 Id. at 1554.

323 Elston v. Talladega Cty. Bd. of Educ., 997 F.2d 1394, 1395 (11th Cir. 1993).

324 Id. at 1395.

325 Id. at 1401.

326 Id.

327 Id. at 1403.

328 Id. at 1404.

329 Id.

330 Id. at 1405.

331 Id. at 1410.

332 Id. at 1426.

333 Jackson v. Nassau County Bd. Of Sup’rs., 818 F. Supp. 509 (E.D.N.Y. 1993).

334 Id. at 511.

335 Id. at 524.

336 Id. at 535.

337 Id. at 536.

338 Jeffers v. Tucker, 839 F. Supp. 612 (E.D. Ark 1993).

339 Id. at 614.

340 Id. at 614.

341 Id. at 638.

342 Id. at 730.

343 Id. at 737.

344 Id. at 814.

345 Id. at 842.

346 League of United Latin American Citizens Council No. v. Clements, 914 F.2d 620 (5 Cir. 1991).

347 Public Policy Forum, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 21‐24. 348 Racism Then and Now, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994 at 12 349 Rho Sigma, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 36.

350 Omicron Omicron, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 44‐45. 351 Iota Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 41. 352 Pi Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 41. 353 Zeta Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 44.

354 Gamma Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 44.

355 Eta Rho Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 44.

356 Alpha Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 45. 357 Gamma Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 45. 358 Epsilon Nu, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 36.

359 Beta Epsilon, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 38.

360 Theta Sigma, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 48.

361 Iota Nu, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 49.

362 Pi Delta, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 49.

363 1993 Chapter of the Year, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 18‐20.

364 Beta Delta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 36.

365 Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 37.

366 Alpha Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 48. 367 Theta Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 49. 368 Gamma Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 50. 369 Delta Sigma, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 39.

370 Epsilon Xi, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 39.

371 Iota Delta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 39.

372 Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 39.

373 Epsilon Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1994, at 40.

374 Theta Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 47.

375 Eta Tau Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 47.

376 Omicron Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1994, at 48.

377 Dillard v. City of Greensboro, 870 F. Supp. 1032 (M.D. Ala. 1994).

378 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 153.

379 Id.

380 Id. at 151.

381 Id. at 118.

382 Id.

383 Id.

384 Id. at 151.

385 Id. at 149.

386 Id.

387 Id.

388 Id. at 132.

389 Id. at 132–33.

390 Id. at 147–48.

391 Id. at 153.

392 Id. at 154.

393 Id.

394 APA/ Congressional Black Caucus Alliance Grows Stronger, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 39‐41.

395 Alpha Chapter, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 47‐48.

396 Beta, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 42.

397 Epsilon Pi, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 42.

398 Eta, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 42.

399 Rho Nu, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 43.

400 Sigma, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 60.

401 Omicron Eta Tau, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 60.

402 Nu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 46.

403 Kappa Phi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 46.

404 Kappa Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 46. 405 Pi Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 47. 406 Zeta Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 47. 407 Xi Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 41.

408 Omicron Delta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 41. 409 Gamma Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 41. 410 Iota Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 59‐60.

411 Mu Alpha, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 49.

412 Beta Zeta, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 44.

413 Iota Nu, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 62.

414 Sigma Delta, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 62.

415 Beta Delta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 48. 416 Alpha Nu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 49. 417 Beta Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, 1995, at 45.

418 Theta Nu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 45.  419 Gamma Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 46. 420 Kappa Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 46.

421 Omicron Kappa Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 62.

422 Kappa Kappa, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 48.

423 Zeta Tau, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 46.

424 Pi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 51.

425 Omicron Psi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 64.

426 Sigma Phi, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 48.

427 Beta Nu, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 48.

428 Rho Upsilon, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 44.

429 Eta Eta, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 61.

430 Gamma Xi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 43.

431 Mu Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 44.

432 Alpha Xi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 61.

433 Sigma Psi, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 52.

434 Zeta Pi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 47.

435 Kappa Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 47. 436 Iota Omicron Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 47. 437 Eta Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1995, at 63‐64.

438 Alpha Renaissance Alive in the Bahamas, THE SPHINX, Winter 1995, at 53.

439 Young, Gifted, and Black, THE SPHINX, Summer 1995, at 32‐34.

440 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 158.

441 Id.

442 Id.

443 Id. at 158–59.

444 Kellogg Grant, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 11‐12.

445 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 169.

446 Id. at 155.

447 Id.

448 Id.

449 Id.

450 Id. at 156

451 Id. at 176

452 Id.

453 Letter from the General President, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 1.

454 Congressional Black Caucus Reception Keeps Getting Better, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 38‐40.

455 Psi, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 39.

456 Kappa Phi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 20‐21.

457 Zeta Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 42.

458 Alpha Gamma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 43.

459 Eta Rho Lambda, in THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 43.

460 Eta Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 37.

461 Omicron Lambda Alpha, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 37. 462 Alpha Gamma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 38. 463 Delta Eta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 38.

464 Rho Xi, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 50.

465 Delta Beta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 55. 466 Omicron Eta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 55. 467Alpha Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 56.

468 The Tenacity of Beta Nu, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 9‐10.

469 Mu Alpha, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 40.

470 Alpha Beta, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 41.

471 Kappa Alpha, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 41.

472 Mu Zeta, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 39.

473 Zeta Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 41. 474 Delta Delta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 41. 475 Omicron Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 39.

476 Omicron Tau Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 40.

477 Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 40. 478 Theta Gamma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 50. 479 Alpha Nu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 51.

480 Omicron Kappa Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 51.

481 Omicron Nu, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 51.

482 Eta Epsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 41.

483 Beta Eta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 42.

484 Gamma Eta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 40.

485 Epsilon, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 43.

486 Eta Tau Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 19‐22.

487 Theta Xi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1996, at 41.

488 Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 52.

489 Iota Delta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 52.

490 Mu Chi, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 45.

491 Iota Psi, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 53.

492 Zeta Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1996, at 45.

493 Zeta Beta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 54. 494 Beta Psi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1996, at 54. 495 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 163–64.

496 Id. at 164.

497 Id. at 167.

498 Id.

499 Id. at 163.

500  Id. at 164.

501 Id. at 165.

502 Id.

503 Id.

504 Id. at 166.

505 Id. at 169.

506 Id.

507 Id. at 170.

508 Id.

509 Id. at 185.

510 Id. at 176.

511 Id.

512 Id. at 170.

513 Id. at 170–71.

514 1997 General Convention, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 29‐35.

515 GENERAL CONVENTION MINUTES 38 (1997).

516 Theta Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 46.

517 Kappa Epsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 47. 518 Zeta Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 47. 519 Rho Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 47.

520 Zeta Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 48.

521 Gamma Sigma, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 56.

522 Omicron Lambda Alpha, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 51.

523 Iota Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 51.  524 Alpha Kappa Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 52. 525 Zeta Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 52. 526 Alpha Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 52.

527 Kappa Epsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 53.

528 Eta Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 58.

529 Pi Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 56. 530 Iota Lambda Alpha, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 56. 531 Beta Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 57. 532 Zeta Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 57. 533 Epsilon Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 57.

534 Zeta Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 58. 535 Mu Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 58. 536 Delta Gamma, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 49.

537 Mu Zeta, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 50.

538 Alpha Phi, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 50.

539 Mu Xi, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 54.

540 1997 College Chapter of the Year, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 14‐16.

541 Iota Delta, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 60.

542 Xi Gamma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 49.

543 Mu Pi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 50.

544 Tau Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 55.

545 Xi Gamma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 55.

546 Omicron Kappa Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 56.

547 Theta Nu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 59.

548 Delta Kappa Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 60.

549 Alpha Nu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 61. 550 Beta Beta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 61. 551 Zeta Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 61. 552 Nu Psi, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 13‐15.

553 Delta Theta, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 51‐52.

554 Omicron Nu, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 56.

555 Kappa Kappa, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 47.

556 Omicron Epsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 62.

557 Community Service, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 16‐17.

558 Xi Tau Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 51.

559 Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 56.  560 Beta Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 57. 561 Iota Delta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 49.

562 Delta Alpha Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 53.

563 Mu Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 53.

564 Beta Lambda Continues, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 21‐22.

565 Iota Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 59.

566 Epsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 59.

567Mu Chi, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 57.

568 Pi Kappa, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 62.

569 Zeta Pi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1997, at 52.

570 Pi Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1997, at 58. 571 Eta Pi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall/Winter 1997, at 62. 572 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 195.

573 Id. at 195–96.

574 Id. at 175.

575 Fraternity’s Contribution, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 42.

576 Fraternity Launches Nationwide Housing Reinvestment Program, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 41.

577 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 173, 175.

578 Id.

579 Gamma Iota, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 47.

580 Kappa Phi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 53.

581 Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 54.

582 Alpha Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 55.

583 Rho Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 55.

584 Beta Delta, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 50.

585 Kappa Beta, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 50‐51.

586 Delta Alpha, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 56‐57.

587 Theta Mu, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 57.

588 Zeta Pi, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 57.

589 Beta Upsilon, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 59.

590 Eta Phi¸ in THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 59.

591 Beta Nu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 49.

592 Alpha Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 49.

593 Delta Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 51. 594 Nu Mu Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 51‐52. 595 Eta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 57.

596 Beta Omicron Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 58.

597 Eta Iota Lambda¸ in THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 58. 598 Delta Phi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 58‐59. 599 Tau Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 59.

600 Delta Xi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 60.

601 Omicron Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 60.

602 Pi Sigma, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 48.

603 Delta Chi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 48. 604 Alpha Rho Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 55‐56. 605 Gamma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 56.

606 Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 60.

607 Pi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 61.

608 Eta Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 61.

609 Omicron Theta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 53.

610 Beta Psi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1998, at 53.

611 Beta Xi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 56.

612 Eta Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 62. 613 Mu Sigma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 62. 614 Gamma Chi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 62.

615 APA Helps the Bahamas, THE SPHINX, Fall 1998, at 31‐35.

616 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 185–86.

617 President’s Letter, THE SPHINX, Spring 1999, at 3.

618 State of the Fraternity Address, THE SPHINX, Fall 1999, at 9‐11.

619 HARRIS, supra note 1, at 184.

620 Id.

621 Omicron Omicron, THE SPHINX, Spring 1999, at 63.

622 Xi Zeta, THE SPHINX, Spring 1999, at 64.

623 Xi Zeta, THE SPHINX, Fall 1999, at 63‐64.

624 Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1999, at 54.

625 Alpha Gamma Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1999, at 63.

626 Kappa Phi Lambda, THE SPHINX, Spring 1999, at 64. 627 Eta Zeta Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1999, at 91. 628 Pi Upsilon Lambda, THE SPHINX, Summer 1999, at 91.