The 1980s

In 1980, General President John Williams spoke about preparations for the completion of the Fraternity’s drive to raise one million dollars for the United Negro College Fund, the N.A.A.C.P., and the National Urban League.1 A progress report of the drive shows that the Fraternity had pledged $806,959.35 (by some 1,600 brothers) and that they collected $312,818.63 as of March 10, 1980. All of the brothers who donated over $250 to the drive are also listed.2 Also in 1980, the Fraternity decided to hold an international convention in the “Black‐ governed nation of Jamaica,” to “symbolize Alpha’s (and Black America’s) interest in and identification with the Third World.” The author of this article lists further reasons for holding this leadership conference.3 Referring to the Million Dollar Drive, the General President stated that once they have raised the desired amount for the N.A.A.C.P., the United Negro College Fund, and the National Urban League, the Fraternity “will have marked a new era for Black organizations” because “[b]lack institutions will never again have to depend solely on others for their survival.”4

At the Seventy‐Fourth General Convention, the Commission on College Brother Affairs presented a more detailed plan for pledge programming due to pressures from a number of lawsuits against the Fraternity.5 Hazing had long been an issue within Alpha, but the new specter of law suits against the Fraternity diverted intellectual capital away from other issues, such as racial uplift, and the type of litigation the Fraternity had faced in the past, notably desegregation and voting rights. As such, by 1980, in addition to the debate over the new pledge program, a central message of the Convention was for the Fraternity to reach back to their roots, connecting and serving African communities outside the United States. At the conclusion of the Convention, it was announced that the Fraternity elected Brother Ozell Sutton to serve as the twenty‐sixth General President.6

At its Seventy‐Fourth General Convention, the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity released a statement of public policy. The introduction of the Fraternity’s official policy statement for the year urged brothers and chapters to develop, expand, and record community programs benefiting the less fortunate. Additionally, it called on all levels of government, particularly the President and federal government, to provide all citizens with the “services for which they qualify.”7 There were primary tenets, including the Curtailment of Police Brutality for Human Betterment, about which was said “Alpha Phi Alpha dares to demand in 1980 that a uniform standard of justice be practiced for all Americans. This Fraternity therefore calls all local, state and federal law enforcement agencies to reevaluate their personnel recruitment and selection policies and their law enforcement practices . . . We further urge that larger percentages of Black and other minority groups be added to police forces.”8 Another primary tenet was Black Federal Judges and Human Betterment. In response to the actions of the Federal Judiciary Committee of the American Bar Association in relation to the attempted appointment of Black judges (Fred D. Gary and U. W. Clemon) to the federal courts of Alabama, “the Fraternity reminds those who are involved in the selection process of federal judges that racially motivated attacks are unfair, discriminatory, and illogical . . . Alpha Phi Alpha further declares that in 1980, it is no honor for a State not to have Black federal judges. We urge the confirmation of Fred Gray. We insist that [the] ABA amend its racist ways.”9 Yet another primary tenet was Employment and Human Betterment, for which it was stated that the Fraternity “calls upon the federal government to support and adhere to the mandate of the Humphrey‐ Hawkins Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act. We further recommend that the Comprehensive Employment Training Assistance Program and other work programs be made more effective and be retained as a source of jobs for the chronically unemployed . . . Equal Employment Opportunity must become a reality.” They particularly encouraged small businesses to hire African American youths.10 Another primary tenet was Economic and Business Development and Human Betterment: the national organizations wanted its chapters to promote their program—“Black Business: A Blueprint for the ‘80s”—in their local communities through steering students towards business, accounting, engineering, finance, and marketing programs. They also desired that local financial institutions provide business insurance to minority firms at reasonable rates and that federal government agencies give minority firms a representative share of government contracts.11 Finally, another primary tenet was United States Immigration Policy and Human Betterment, and in reference to the disparate reactions to refugees from Asia and Cuba in comparison to refugees from Haiti, Alpha Phi Alpha urged a “more judicious immigration policy” and that “more qualified American Blacks be named to policy making positions and employed in the implementation of the policies of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.”12

In 1980, many college chapters of Alpha Phi Alpha made significant accomplishments. Gamma Iota Chapter  (Hampton Institute) held a “walkathon” to raise money for the Million Dollar Fund. Additionally, they launched a tutorial program for the young children in Hampton.13 Kappa Rho Chapter (Long Island University’s C. W. Post Center in Greenvale, Long Island) invited orphans from St. Mary of Angels Home for Boys to the 1978 Homecoming football game. They repeated the action by taking more children to a Knicks game a month later. They also held a benefit basketball game for the boys from St. Mary’s. In addition to their work with the orphans from St. Mary’s, the brothers held a “Food Can Drive Disco” for the needy and those affected by Hurricane David. Finally, the brothers organized a voter registration drive in order to get more minority voices in the voting population. They succeeded in registering over 400 people to vote.14 The brothers of Mu Rho Chapter (Baltimore) worked on many projects including blood drives, clothing drives, and food drives. Additionally, they volunteered with the Maryland Correctional Institute, the Maryland League for the Handicapped, and the Big Brothers, Big Sisters program of Central Maryland.15 The Alpha Chapter (Cornell) hosted blood drives, gave financial assistance and volunteer work to the Greater Ithaca Activities Center, and hosted an Annual Halloween Celebration for the children of the Southside Community Center.”16

The brothers of Epsilon Kappa Chapter (Bradley University) raised money for the United Negro College Fund, held the Eighteenth Annual Food and Clothing Drive for Peoria’s Friendship House, and partnered with the parents of the Harrison and Taft Homes to sponsor annual Halloween and Christmas parties for underprivileged children.17 Epsilon Phi Chapter (DeKalb, Illinois) reinstituted the “Go‐to‐High‐ School, Go‐to‐College” program by presenting cash awards to students of high achievement at Chicago Vocation High School.18 Gamma Mu Chapter (Livingstone College) hosted their area’s local “Smoke Out Day” a program run by the American Cancer Society to decrease the rate of smoking. Additionally, the chapter was trying to establish the first N.A.A.C.P. chapter at their college.19 The brothers of Kappa Eta Chapter (Memphis State University) and Nu Eta Chapter (Christian Brothers College) conjointly held a “cheese and wine sip” that was aimed at promoting African American unity on all Memphis College campuses.20 The brothers of Beta Upsilon Chapter (State Teachers College) helped distribute information about a candidate who successfully ran for city councilman. They also participated in a drive to get Birmingham students of Alabama State University to vote and elect Brother Richard Arrington to the office of Mayor of Birmingham, which was successful as well.21

Kappa Omicron Chapter (Durham, North Carolina) awarded a scholarship to a local African American student, sponsored an N.A.A.C.P. membership drive which resulted in almost 100 new members, and raised money for their “Kid of the Month” program that financially assists a needy child in the Durham County General Hospital. Finally, the chapter was participating with Alpha Kappa  Alpha sisters in a tutoring and “big brother/sister”‐type program at a local church.22 The brothers of Iota Delta Chapter (Florida State University) raised money to be donated to Muscular Dystrophy and the Million Dollar Fund. Additionally, they took community kids trick‐or‐ treating and collected canned goods to give to needy families.23 For the past four years, the collective chapters of Memphis, Tennessee had been conducting a “Leadership Development Program” for local high school students.24 Beta Sigma Chapter (Southern University) hosted Halloween and Thanksgiving parties for the mentally handicapped children of Mohican Learning Center and gave Thanksgiving baskets to needy families.25 Epsilon Psi Chapter (University of Missouri) aided an elderly help center relocate its Senior Citizens Home.  Additionally, they aided the North Side Team Ministry in renovating a building to use as a community help center.26

Gamma Iota Chapter (Hampton Institute) sponsored their local Special Olympics Track and Field events that hosted over 2,000 participants.27 The brothers of Kappa Eta Chapter (Memphis State University) volunteered at the Arlington Developmental Center and “submitted urgent requests to the United States Congress to continue the food stamp program.”28 The brothers of Nu Mu Chapter (Georgia Institute of Technology and Southern Institute of Technology, both in Atlanta) sought to “stimulate our youth” by taking kids from a local daycare center and other underprivileged community children to local points of interest (museums, zoo, plays, and the state capital) in a broader effort “to uplift our race academically, socially, and culturally.”29 Additionally, via car washes they raised money that was donated to the N.A.A.C.P., the SCLC, the United Negro College Fund, and the Sickle Cell Foundation of Atlanta, which provided free testing on campus because of the chapter’s efforts.30

Zeta Eta Chapter (Columbia University) employed two high school students as part‐time maintenance workers at their house. This program, funded in part by the city of New York and Columbia University, was a new‐age nod to the “Go‐to‐High‐School, Go‐to‐ College” movement.31 The chapter implemented a program that brings student, faculty, and staff together to discuss the problems that African American students faced at the predominately white institution. The program was accepted well at the university and a trustee asked the Fraternity’s president to arrange a meeting between him and the students, which was a first.32 Sigma Chapter (Harvard University, Boston University, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology) was involved with the Big Brothers Association and provided tutorial services and companionship to local boys. Additionally, brothers visited local high schools to emphasize the importance of continuing education.33 The chapter also hosted a job fair on campus to bring local employers closer to the students during difficult economic times.34

The brothers of Alpha Mu Chapter (Northwestern University) went into the African American community of Evanston to remind people of the importance of voting in the Presidential election.35 The chapter also hosted its Fifth Annual Black Career Awareness Day/Job Expo that brought over thirty‐five corporations and firms to speak with and recruit African American students. Informative seminars were also given on different careers.36 To boost the declining enrollment of African Americans at Northwestern University, the chapter hosted an “overnighter” for inner‐city high school seniors from Chicago that were potential Northwestern University students.37 Kappa Beta Chapter (Mississippi State University) helped Miss Maggie Sherwood become the first woman of color to be nominated to the Mississippi State Homecoming Court in its 101‐year long history.38

Alumni chapters also made notable achievements in 1980. Kappa Phi Lambda Chapter (Columbia, Maryland) provided maintenance to the Audrey Robbins emergency shelter for displaced families and gave over $1,200 in scholarships to local recipients.39 The chapter was also active in government through service on committees and counsels that were “influential in getting legislation passed at federal, state, and local levels to benefit minorities.”40 Delta Chi Lambda Chapter’s (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) report mentioned a national Fraternity effort to encourage young African Americans to enter the business world.41 The chapter formed a Political Action Committee to monitor local politics and complete projects, the first of which aided in the campaign effort of Brother Fred St. Clair who ran for a position on the Circuit Court.42

Eta Psi Lambda Chapter (Tucson, Arizona) and Zeta Theta Chapter (University of Arizona) sponsored a Symposium for local high school students on the topic of “Go‐to‐High‐School, Go‐to‐College.” Ninety‐eight students heard presentations on the academic, vocational, and recreational opportunities in Tucson.43 Beta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Richmond, Virginia) worked with local boys through the Big Brothers of America program and the Boy Scouts. Additionally, they ran a canned food drive which collected cans to distribute in Thanksgiving baskets to needy families.44 Delta Mu Lambda Chapter (Paterson, New Jersey) provided transportation to senior citizens forty‐ eight weeks a year, contributed funds to help purchase shoes for needy children, helped conduct the 1980 census in their locality, and awarded $1,200 worth of scholarships.45

Epsilon Lambda Chapter (St. Louis, Missouri) held an Education Enrichment Program “to widen the horizons of pre‐teens,” a Job Preparation Program “to teach our jobless to fill out applications properly and present themselves to employers in the best possible manner,” as well as a voter registration drive.46 Delta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Cleveland, Ohio) was involved in the “Pride Program,” supported by local principals and the Board of Education, designed to instill pride in the youth of the city in all levels of their accomplishments.47

Kappa Omicron Lambda Chapter (Vallejo, California) hosted a new program, “Career Awareness,” that was presented by the Home Savings and Loan Association. It enrolled thirty local high‐school seniors in weekly work sessions that acquainted students with the business world. The top ten percent of students in the program were be offered summer jobs with Home Savings, with opportunities for permanent employment.48 The chapter also continued to support students in the University of California’s professional development program, which explained career options and provided training for women and minorities to help them enter fields in which they are underrepresented.49

Gamma Theta Lambda Chapter (Wilmington, Delaware) gave a presentation before the State Board of Education in opposition to the plan to redistrict New Castle County School District.50 The brothers also expanded their tutorial program the West End Neighborhood Center and individually tutored students outside of this structure.51

Politically, the chapter was “trying to resolve the conflicts between two of the local state representatives, without the glare and rancor of the local media.” Additionally, they supported a voter registration drive.52

Delta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Cleveland, Ohio) held its Sixth Annual “Father and Son Banquet,” which was attended by approximately 150 people. The goal of the program was “to foster good human relations, promote scholarship and reward achievements of minority high school males.” It drew its attendance from African American males and their fathers, who were recommended by principals from twelve Cleveland‐area high schools. The attendees were honored with a trophy and the program kept track of them as they continued their education.53 The program’s chairman reported that 95% of the young men honored at the banquet went on to higher education.54

Social action was a central pillar of Alpha Phi Alpha when moving forward into the 1980s. During his inaugural address on January 10, 1981, twenty‐sixth General President Brother Ozell Sutton made it very clear that the Fraternity was committed to ensuring that “never again will the legitimate hope and aspiration of little black girls and little black boys be dashed with the bone‐chilling waters of inequality.”55 He himself was already involved in civil rights before becoming General President.

In line with helping all those in the African community, the Public Policy Statement from the Diamond Jubilee urged the United States government to support the self‐determination of the African masses in South Africa in the face of newly forming racial hate groups.56 The Statement also called out federal agencies, such as the Department of Commerce, on the importance of providing capital and counsel for minority entrepreneurs.57

While presiding over the Diamond Jubilee General Convention in the summer of 1981, General President Sutton called to action “the best trained and most committed black men for the fight for equality and justice.”58 The Diamond Jubilee saw a unification of ideals, and asked for men of the Fraternity to consider how to be Black, American, and Christian. Brother Dr. John Hurst Adams suggested that the contemporary Christian Church would be essential for securing the future of African Americans.59 The history of the church, from freedom songs to spirituals, in combination with the connection to the founding Jewels would help reignite fellowship and brotherhood from the members of Alpha Phi Alpha. In the Public Policy Statement of 1981, Alpha Phi Alpha officially endorsed the extension of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.60 They also called on Congressmen to scrutinize the proposed budget and restore some of the cuts to social programs.61 Additionally, they called for legislation that prohibits the establishment of KKK paramilitary camps in any state, and they called upon the Department of Defense to issue a more stringent policy against KKK activities in the United States Armed Forces.62

In defining the agenda for the 1980s, Vernon Jordan, president of the National Urban League, and Christopher Edley, president of the United Negro College Fund, explored economic and educational strategies in the face of the shrinking federal government under the Reagan Administration.63 This could not be an age for African Americans to lose steam, but rather use the finances and opportunities they built and strengthen their cause. Out of this new strength came a new national program, titled “The New Alpha Thrust: Saluting the Past and Securing the Future.”64 The program centered on seven principles: youth development, education, business encouragement, reclamation, social action, existence and expansion of African American colleges and universities, and staff support in the national office.65

Furthermore, the Public Policy Statement of the Diamond Jubilee Convention supported the extension of the 1965 Voting Rights Act in order to make sure all citizens had equal opportunity to participate in the political process.66 The importance of voter registration was addressed again in the Public Policy Statement for the following Convention, specifically citing the importance of voter turnout on general election day.67 In fact, General President Sutton wrote a strong appeal to his brothers to stand up to the recent actions of the Reagan administration (he included a list of specific grievances). He encouraged them to continue the fight to extend the Voting Rights Act, nationalize Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday as a holiday, and fight against cuts in the food stamp, old age assistance, and educational assistance programs.68

The Sphinx provided tremendous insights into the strides the Fraternity was making. In his letter of greeting, General President Sutton vaguely outlined the Fraternity’s outreach program of the future, which was under development. He said it would include a campaign to make Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday a national holiday, revitalize the “Business Encouragement” program, and develop a youth program that focused on leadership development, youth motivation and recognition, career guidance, tutorial assistance, job fairs, and youth employment assistance.69 Education Foundation, an organization within the Fraternity, put forth a program that included a manual for chapters to use to develop an Alpha Outreach program. It also helped to fund the development of pilot counseling and tutorial programs in four cities, and conducted education seminars at Alpha Phi Alpha conventions.70

Alpha was cited by the National Black Monitor publication for its role in “shaping leaders for Black America.”71 “The Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity played a major role in developing public consciousness regarding lynchings and Alpha men raised and contributed funds to defray legal expenses in the fight.”72 “Alpha Brother Huel D. Perkins, in a commentary on the role of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity in the education of African Americans, noted: ‘This (educational) program has sometimes been referred to as the highest public endeavor of the Fraternity. Blacks, as a race, are still reaping the benefits of this effort.’”73 “‘The New Alpha Trust’ has five main program components . .

. [t]he first five components include: (1) a business encouragement program (to make black producers as well as consumers); (2) a youth development program involving (a) a leadership development institute,

(b) a youth motivation and recognition program, (c) career guidance and job fairs; (3) the optimizing of the Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. role model for black youth through efforts to make Dr. King’s birthday a national holiday; (4) a campaign to extend the Voter Rights Act; and (5) support of evolving issues—including new definitions—regarding self‐ sufficiency, self‐development and personal success and prosperity for those traditionally oppressed or poor.”74 The Sphinx recounted the Diamond Jubilee convention where General President Ozell Sutton outlined his new program, “New Alpha Trust,” and continued to stress the importance of the Million Dollar Fund Drive, a significant campaign as it represented “a unique effort to provide major funding for Black organizations from the Black community.”75

In “The National Program,” the Youth Development branch aimed to enable young African Americans to overcome the disadvantages caused by years of discrimination in housing, employment, and education.76 To do so, Alpha Phi Alpha sponsored leadership development institutes during the summer that “focus[ed] on organizational skills, program development, public presentation, group dynamics, and assertive training.”77 Each chapter also developed a program to expose local youth to character‐building activities and recognize African American youth achievers. Each alumni chapter was expected to sponsor a Career Day for students and a Job Fair for unemployed youth. For education, the main focus was on replenishing old and finding new sources of scholarships across the nation.78 For business encouragement, chapters were expected to find ways to encourage African Americans to consider business as a profession through holding public discourses and seminars as well as working with higher education institutions.79 For social action, each chapter was to create a committee that worked alongside the broader national committee to address and pursue social justice.80 The primary focuses were making Dr. King’s birthday a holiday and extending the Voting Rights Act of 1965 using petitions, letter‐writing campaigns, and lobbying of local representatives.

Mu Zeta Chapter (University of North Carolina) was involved in working at the voting polls for the “South Orange Black Caucus,” voter registration activities, and working alongside other African American Greek organizations to host a health awareness clinic on campus that provided sickle cell anemia and hypertension testing along with distributing literature concerning health issues to over 200 participants.81 Mu Eta Chapter (Arizona State University) developed a weekend tutoring program with local high‐school students in addition to showing the students a film developed to display college life and departmental programs in hopes of giving students new insights.82 Additionally, the brothers were heavily involved with a rally that encouraged the Black Student Union to “take a stand on the subtle, but ever present, racial bias on campus.”83 The brothers of Alpha Gamma and Mu Theta Lambda chapters (Providence, Rhode Island) worked with the Volunteer Income Tax Assistance program that aided the elderly and handicapped in the greater Providence Community.84 Theta Rho Chapter (Virginia Commonwealth University) participated in various service projects including an on‐campus voter registration drive and a canned food drive in the city, and continued a close relationship with the local Boy’s Club.85 The brothers of Alpha Omicron Chapter (Johnson C. Smith University) developed an on‐campus program that granted scholarships, developed leadership training courses for men and women, funded service‐oriented activities in the city, and planned a Big Brother weekend for disadvantaged youth.86 Beta Epsilon Chapter (A & T University) was awarded a certificate by Governor Hunt for its outstanding service to the state.87 The brothers of Eta Sigma Chapter (Metropolitan Chapter in San Diego, California) worked with the Delta Sigma Theta Sorority to raise money for the families “of the murdered children in Atlanta.”88 Beta Omicron Chapter (Tennessee State University) participated regularly in marches and protests that they believed upheld the rights of the African American community. For example, they protested the South African tennis matches that were held in Nashville a few years prior, when South Africa had participated in the Davis Cup tennis matches.89

Iota Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Silver Spring, Maryland) was founded in 1970 as a result of “a plethora of racial injustices and inequities suffered by the Montgomery Country Black population.” They have since been heavily involved in their community by hosting programs to honor student achievers, businesspersons, and community leaders of color. Additionally, they are involved in finding summer employment for African American youths, promoting active citizenry through efforts to register, educate and encourage African American voters, giving scholarships to African American students, and working with country organizations to increase African American representation in all country agencies.90 Eta Psi Lambda Chapter (Tucson, Arizona) and Zeta Theta Chapter (University of Arizona) jointly held a “Go‐to‐High‐School, Go‐to‐College” symposium that brought together 119 students and their families from seven different school districts.91

The brothers of Xi Lambda Chapter (Chicago, Illinois) provided a critical service to their community earlier in the year. The parents of a local school boycotted it and went to jail to demand quality education for their children. While the chapter stayed out of the political fracas, they did create a tutorial program so that children could continue their education during the strife. They even continued this program after the boycott ended because they recognized that the children in their community needed further educational instruction.92 Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia) created a leadership workshop for local high‐school students, covering public speaking, parliamentary procedure, group dynamics and interpersonal relations, and job interviews and recruitment.93

The early 1980s saw the emergence of the Alpha Phi Alpha/March of Dimes Teen Pregnancy Program, which was subsequently named “Project Alpha.”94 The committee overseeing the project selected 100 young men to lead Project Alpha as they had each demonstrated an ability to lead and influence their peers in a positive and effective way. The program included speakers with scientific and technical information, growing from a local Chicago program to national pilot program.95

The General President spoke of the New Alpha Thrust. Because the program was so expansive, it would be implemented on a priority system. The main priorities for the Fraternity at this date were the extension of the Voting Rights Act without amendment (done through chapters contacting their senators), focusing their job fairs and conferences on twenty‐five cities where unemployment need was the highest, and sponsoring five regional leadership development institutes to be held on African American college campuses and attended by African American youth.96 Alpha Phi Alpha, the National Conference of Christians and Jews, National Coalition for Children’s Justice, and the Louisville/Jefferson Country Criminal Justice Commission joined together to sponsor a national symposium to find ways to combat child abuse and exploitation. The result was the creation of a twenty‐point program that included introducing a Congressional bill and urging stronger local legislation and tougher judicial sentencing.97 Within the year 1982, the Fraternity donated over $200,000 to the United Negro College Fund.98

Again, the General President, Ozell Sutton, addressed concerns over how the Presidential Administration was operating. He called on Alpha men, and the entire race, to leverage their strength in lobbying and voting efforts as well as networking among African American businesses and people of other minorities to create a coalition for cooperative action.99 The Assistant Executive Secretary for Programs stated that the Education Foundation created information packets (called A‐Phi‐Aid: Financial Assistance For College Bound Students) for chapters to use when counseling pre‐college and college students on possible financial aid resources.100 The Fraternity supported “Operation Big Vote—Crusade ’82,” the new national campaign of the National Coalition on Black Voter Participation, and encouraged all chapters to participate in voter registration drives.101

A Statement of Public Policy issued in 1982 included primary elements. “A Voteless People is a Hopeless People:” All brothers were urged to take leadership or work with extant institutions/programs to inform “the potential Black voter of just what power the ballot actually is.” They were also encouraged to go further than just registering individuals to ensure that they actually go to the polls and vote. Furthermore, brothers were urged to disseminate information on the issues and what persons should be voting for.102 “The Big Three— N.A.A.C.P., Urban League, and UNCF:” Alpha had recently donated over $600,000 to these organizations and continued to urge others to support them and work with them whenever possible.103 “The KKK and Other Race‐Hate Groups:” the Fraternity advised the United States Department of Justice “to take immediate and decisive action to stop the emergence and resurgence of these extremist hate groups.” They also urged the Department of Defense to develop a more stringent policy to combat Klan activities in the United States Armed Forces. The Fraternity itself pledged to speak out against those who fomented racism and fascist views.104 “Nuclear War:” the Fraternity insisted that the federal government work towards nuclear arms control.105 “Education: Drugs Tuition Tax Credits, Black Colleges:” Alpha Phi Alpha called for youths to be educated beforehand about the harmfulness of drug use and that social institutions like the church work to reach the adult population with similar information. The Fraternity was “opposed to any legislation designed to provide tax credits for tuition paid to any private elementary or secondary school” or that reduced “federal aid to public education while at the same time adding a new expenditure to private and parochial schools.” The Federal Government was not to subsidize school choice.106 “Federal Regulatory Concerns—Health:” Alpha Phi Alpha was “opposed to any deregulation plan which [would] jeopardize the health of human  beings in order to provide greater profits for big business.”107 “The Reagan Administration’s Lack of Commitment to Civil Rights:” the Fraternity urged Congress not to approve of the proposed budget  which reduces spending in several agencies key to civil rights. They urged “fair‐minded citizens to make their opinions known to their Congressmen.”108

On October 31, 1982, Chicago hosted the ground‐breaking ceremony for the 149‐unit “Alpha Tower.”109 The project was the first project of its kind as it was totally sponsored by a Greek‐Letter organization. Originally proposed under General President Williams, General President Sutton helped bring the project to fruition. Financed by a guaranteed Housing and Urban Development mortgage under section 202 of the National Housing Act of 1959, the guarantee provided assistance to Alpha Phi Alpha as a non‐profit corporation developing new housing for low‐income elderly residents.110 Alpha Tower was more than just a roof over someone’s head, as the facility also provided continuing education on health and recreational services including homemaking, meals, and nutrition as well as counseling, referral services, and transportation to help residents maintain an independent style of living.111

Additionally, the National Health Screening Council for Volunteer Organizations offered to provide health screening services to the African American community via the Fraternity. Chapters were encouraged to host a screening fair for their community.112 It was also announced that starting in 1983, the Fraternity would join with the March of Dimes Foundation to sponsor teen pregnancy conferences in seven United States cities.113

The Baltimore chapters joined together to operate a booth at an African American ethnic festival where they registered over 700 people to vote, attempted to increase membership for the N.A.A.C.P., and got over 5,000 signatures on a petition to make Dr. King’s birthday a national holiday.114 The brothers of Beta Chapter (Howard University) held a week‐long Health Seminar that touched on the “pertinent problems facing Black Americans.”115 The brothers also participated in a graduate student’s doctoral thesis concerning African American males in society.116 The brothers of Gamma Rho Chapter partnered with Acacia Fraternities to sponsor the First Annual “Ebony and Ivory” unity weekend to promote racial unity on their predominantly white campus. The rally was fully supported by the university and received media attention. Since the success of the program, other chapters expressed interest in holding similar programs at their respective schools.117 Kappa Theta Chapter (Vanderbilt University) intended to stress the importance of African American organizational unity on their majority‐ white campus by cohosting events with other African American organizations throughout the year.118

Alpha Gamma Lambda Chapter (Richmond, Virginia) celebrated Black History Month with a week of community festivities that included a seminar on college admissions and financial aid resources, both private and public. They also had a session about investing in the stock market, real estate, and locating the proper tax shelters. A third seminar was held for senior citizens and addressed the programs of the New York City Department of Aging, Medicare, Medicaid, Social Security, and housing.119 Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia) planned its Fifth Annual Alpha Leadership Institute for High School Students at Eckerd College. Over the years, this program reached more than 300 promising high school students in the local area, assisted them with academic skills, and showed them role models for good character and high achievement.120 Eta Sigma Lambda Chapter (Palo Alto, California) started a program called “Project Olympus” through which they planned to take fifty disadvantaged local youth aged twelve to fifteen to the 1984 Olympics in hopes that it would enable them to witness and be inspired by the dedication and determination of the athletes.121

During General President Sutton’s second term, fifteen years of Alpha Phi Alpha’s hard work finally paid off. On November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed into law legislation that made the third Monday in January a national holiday in honor of Brother Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday.122 A national holiday for Brother King had been on the agenda of numerous general presidents but was always met with enough opposition in Congress or the Executive branch to keep the legislation from passing. He also demonstrated profound leadership by suggesting the need for a National Conference of African American and Jewish leaders as Jews and African Americans were two minorities who historically aligned in fighting for civil rights.123 General President Ozell Sutton announced that in the summer of 1983, the Fraternity would host Alpha Leadership Development and Citizenship Education Institutes in each of the five regions. These programs would give African American junior and senior high‐school student leadership tools such as public speaking, community organization techniques, and self‐actualization.124 The Fraternity would also be at the planning core for the Twentieth Anniversary March on Washington that focused on jobs, freedom, and peace.125

In addition to the institutes to be held in the summer, the Fraternity also joined forces with the American Cancer Society to create an education project that informed the African American community  of its high incidence of cancer.126 Additionally, the Fraternity had a “Business Encouragement Week.” The national organization wished that every chapter would secure an endorsement for that week from their local mayor and, where possible, a state‐wide designation from their governor.127

Brother Waldo E. Johnson, Jr., the assistant executive secretary, again outlined the components of the New Alpha Thrust. He encouraged chapters to sponsor local leadership development and citizenship education institutions, as well as sponsor local youth to the regional institute.128 Also, he encouraged chapters to participate in “Operation Big‐Vote of the National Coalition for Black Voter Participation,” which primarily entailed voter registration drives and political education forums.129 Finally, he announced that the Fraternity was continuing to work with the March of Dimes program to sponsor conferences on adolescent sexuality in seven different cities.130

Members of the Public Policy Committee outlined the Public Policy of 1983, beginning with “A Political Strategy for 1984:” Alpha men, at the local, regional, and national level would work towards voter registration.131 The Fraternity believed that “there are Black men and women, and representatives of other minorities, who are capable of serving this country as president.”132 “The present needs of Black Americans require that we support the best candidate, regardless of race, color, creed, or political affiliation.”133 The Fraternity would select a candidate they believed would commit himself to “a Black agenda of issues” and that the Fraternity would “work aggressively through voter education to get out the vote in 1984.”134 The policy also included “The Civil Rights Commission:” the brothers of Alpha deplored the actions of President Ronald Reagan “to remove members of the Civil Rights Commission because they do not adopt and support the Republican Admiration’s position on every issue.” They urged the President to advance civil rights, not impede them.135 Additionally, the policy included “Tuition Tax Credits:” as with the previous year’s policy statement, the Fraternity was against plans to subsidize private school attendance using federal funds as they believed it would undermine the public education system.136 Another policy regarded “Youth and Violent Crime:” given the rise in violent crime and the increasing media attention it received, the Fraternity proposed a societal holistic approach to redressing the issue including creating more jobs for youth, reducing media emphasis on negatives, adjusting the justice system to more reform, and punishing capital crimes for youth uniformly nationwide.137 Additionally, the policy included “Fair Housing Legislation:” Alpha endorsed the position of the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, which was in support of the Kennedy‐ Mathais Bill.138 Finally, the policy included “The EPA:” Alpha believed that the Federal Government had become too loose in regulating pollution and that if such actions were not reversed, it would adversely affect the health of the nation.139 In an article in The Sphinx, “Speaking of Programs…,” Brother Waldo E. Johnson, Jr. noted that all Alpha men needed to develop PACs in conjunction with other groups and organizations because more and more Black candidates were entering political races.140

Epsilon Alpha Chapter (Toledo University) held its own Ebony and Ivory Festival, inspired by Gamma Rho Chapter (Purdue University), which was well attended and received.141 Gamma Rho Chapter held its second Ebony and Ivory weekend in conjunction with other white fraternities. The weekend occurred shortly after the third anniversary of when a cross was burned in the front lawn of the Fraternity house on campus.142 “In the South Jamaica Housing Project, voter registration and voter turn‐out was less than 100 people a year ago, but has leaped to well over 600 people due to the untiring efforts of the members of the Zeta Zeta Lambda Chapter . . . and the South Jamaica Community Advisory Board.” Because this community was putting their right to vote to work, they saw improvements to their complex buildings.143 Alpha Delta Lambda Chapter spearheaded a drive to get Memphis‐area brothers involved in the campaign of Brother J.O. Patterson for Mayor. They successfully telephoned thousands of citizens and raised more than $2,200 for his campaign.144 Xi Lambda and Iota Delta Lambda chapters (Chicago, Illinois) hosted the pilot Minority Health Fair Program that reached over 400 people. The fair provided dental, blood pressure, glaucoma, hearing, and visual screenings free of charge, and they also held health education seminars on the warning signs of cancer, proper nutrition, and sickle cell anemia.145 Alpha Alpha Lambda Chapter (Newark, New Jersey) along with the Newark League for Women Voters, sponsored a forum for candidates for election to the Newark Board of Education.146

Zeta Omicron Lambda Chapter (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) sponsored its Third Annual Science and Energy Career Conference. More than 500 middle school students attended, going to workshops on various forms of engineering. Parents could attend a special seminar that concerned how they could better enable their student to successfully matriculate.147 Mu Zeta Lambda Chapter (Auburndale) began working with the local Anchor House ministries by including the young men living there (who were in trouble at home, with the law, or just dissatisfied with life and lacking purpose) to participate in as many fraternal events as possible in hopes of having these men assimilate and offering them some positive direction in their lives.148 Alpha Alpha Lambda Chapter (Newark, New Jersey) gave financial support to the local outlet of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting because “it [had] done so much to present Blacks in a positive light” and it was “one of the few outlets to present Black creative expression.”149 Delta Beta Lambda Chapter (Hampton, Virginia) reported that its brothers were some of the 400 Alphas, including the General President, who participated in the Twentieth Anniversary March on Washington for Jobs, Peace, and Freedom.150

In 1983, Brother William T. Coleman, by invitation of the Court, argued in this cause as amicus curaie urging affirmance in Bob Jones University v. United States before the Supreme Court. In this case, the University was denied tax‐exempt status because of its racially discriminatory admissions policy and sought refund of federal unemployment tax payments, and the Government counterclaimed for unpaid taxes. The United States District Court for the District of South Carolina entered judgment in favor of University, and the Internal Revenue Service appealed. The Court of Appeals reversed and certiorari was granted. In a second case, another school sought refund of social security for unpaid taxes. The United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina entered summary judgment for the Government, the Court of Appeals affirmed, and certiorari was granted. The Supreme Court held that nonprofit private schools that prescribed and enforced racially discriminatory admission standards on the basis of religious doctrine did not qualify as tax‐exempt organizations under the Internal Revenue Code, nor were contributions to such schools deductible as charitable contributions. 151

In early 1984, General President Sutton announced the formation of the Assault on Illiteracy Program (AOIP). The objective of the newly established program was to combat the 47% illiteracy rate among the adult African American population.152 This statistic was even more striking when compared to the only 16% illiteracy rate of the adult white population.153 General President Sutton partnered with the United States Department of Education to address the rising problem, along with Brother Sutton calling on his brothers to do their part in their community, showing yet again the Fraternity’s belief in improving the quality and access to education as a central philosophy.154 General President Sutton was chosen as the national spokesperson for the campaign.155 The AOIP received an official endorsement and created a partner relationship with the United States Department of Education.156 “Project Siege” was an Alpha community response to expand services for the elderly population as a result of severe economic conditions and changing social conditions. The Fraternity partnered with the Hampton Institute’s Gerontology Center to create an intergenerational service‐learning program that five chapters were selected to participate in. The chapters hosted forums, visited the homebound, published directories for the elderly, and other like programs.157 Theta Lambda Chapter (Dayton, Ohio) and the March of Dimes hosted 100 African American male high school students for “Project Alpha.” The program included information about teenage pregnancy, fatherhood, and health consequences.158

Alpha Phi Alpha’s Public Policy of 1984 stated that the Fraternity would continue to register and educate voters, and would also seek to provide transportation to the polls and information on the mechanisms of voting.159 On “Business and Economic Development,” Alpha encouraged chapters to develop, sponsor, and recognize business development in their local communities. Additionally, the Fraternity urged brothers to patronize African American enterprises whenever possible.160 On “Unemployment Among Black Youth,” Alpha “urge[d] the federal, state, and local governments to mobilize their resources in support of youth employment through the establishment of programs of public works and public services,” especially those that could provide youths with marketable skills.161 On “Hunger in America,” the Fraternity called upon the Reagan Administration and Congress to expand the child nutrition program in order to ameliorate childhood hunger.162 On “Juvenile Crime,” in addition to other recommendations made in previous years, the Fraternity called for the “unwarranted disparities in the treatment of youth . . . to be eliminated.”163

Alpha Nu Chapter (Des Moines, Iowa) was awarded the United Way “State of Iowa Volunteer Service Award” for its work with the “Big Brother” and “Super Saturday” inner‐city youth programs.”164 After finding a five‐foot burning cross in the front lawn of the fraternity house, Epsilon Epsilon Chapter (Oklahoma State University) quickly contacted the authorities and the local media to initiate and increase public concern and awareness.165

Beta Epsilon Chapter (A & T College) was awarded College Chapter of the Year in 1984. The chapter implemented a “Go‐to‐High‐ School, Go‐to‐College” program to encourage the pursuit of higher education to high school students and “A Voteless People is a Hopeless People” program to distribute flyers and assist the local N.A.A.C.P. chapter in a voter registration drive.166 Among its other service efforts was the donation of clothes and money to a fellow student whose house burned down in a fire, the hosting of several events at the St. James Nursing Home, and a number of clothing drives for the Urban Ministry, Goodwill, and Salvation Army.167 The brothers of Beta Epsilon Chapter also served as tutors and Big Brothers for children at the local YMCA.168

Xi Delta Chapter (James Madison University) sponsored two voter registration drives in 1984. The first it sponsored in conjunction with the Student Government Association for students on campus. The chapter held its second drive over the course of three weeks in September and October for residents of the city of Harrisonburg.169 Delta Epsilon Chapter (University of Buffalo) assisted the Buffalo  Urban League in raising money and holding membership drives in 1984. It also participated in a Big Brother program at the West Seneca Developmental Center and assisted in several voter registration drives and political campaigns.170

Gamma Rho Chapter (Purdue University) sponsored its annual voter registration drive in conjunction with the mayor of West Lafayette and a state representative. The drive successfully registered almost 200 people to vote. The chapter also sponsored a fundraiser for and participated in the Lou Rawls Parade of Stars Telethon with the United Negro College Fund. The brothers made an on‐air contribution of $300, the largest donation given by an African American Greek undergraduate organization.171 Nu Delta Chapter (Chicago State University) held several community programs during the holiday season for the area’s youth and elderly. In October the brothers sponsored an annual Halloween party for over 300 children, and in November they provided meals for over 500 senior citizens at the Eleventh Annual Senior Citizens’ Pre‐Thanksgiving Day Dinner.  Finally, in December, the chapter donated presents to the elderly at an Adopt‐a‐Senior‐Citizen Program.172

Delta Nu Chapter (University of Maryland Eastern Shore) sponsored several community projects in the 1984‐1985 academic year. The brothers held several seminars on campus covering topics such as birth control, drug abuse, skin care, high blood pressure, and sickle cell screenings. They also presented a check for $1,000 to the Ethiopian Hunger Relief Committee at the school’s homecoming game, the money for which was raised through a number of fundraisers throughout the year. Finally, the chapter made a Black History Month presentation at an elementary school, visited a local nursing home, and gave Christmas, Halloween, and Easter parties for the children at the SmallWorld Day Care Nursery.173 Epsilon Delta Chapter’s (Kent State) community effots provided books for those in need during the 1984‐ 1985 school year. The brothers donated seventy books to the “severely impoverished” Woodland Recreation Center.174 They also made a contribution of $400 to the Oscar W. Ritchie Book Voucher Fund, a foundation that offered students the chance to purchase their books at a 70% discount.175

The A‐Phi‐Aid Project completed by Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia) was designed to provide high‐school seniors with an orientation to the admissions and financial aid processes of college. They successfully disseminated information (via printed brochures and seminar sessions) to over 1,000 seniors from ten inner‐city high‐ schools.176 Xi Lambda Chapter finished the third year of its Computer Lab School. The program used one of the brother’s computers as a means to tutor area children in computer logic and literacy. In September, the chapter also held a free vaccination program for the pets of families who could not otherwise afford them.177 Alpha Eta Lambda Chapter (Houston, Texas) sponsored a number of seminars on subjects such as money management, crime prevention, and child abuse for people in the Houston community in 1984. Another interesting program that the brothers put on was called “Take it to the Sky.” In this program, brothers who were licensed pilots gave free plane rides to children who had never flown in an airplane before.178

The 1984 Alumni Chapter of the Year was Zeta Psi Lambda (Lake Charles, Louisiana). The chapter was responsible for a number of continuous community programs, including the sixth year of its tutorial program for area students in need and the third year of its Junior Achievement Program, a business and enterprise education program for students at Lake Charles‐Boston High School. Around Christmas time, Zeta Psi Lambda Chapter also donated clothing to the Robinswood Mental Retardation Center and donated food baskets to several families in the area.179 The chapter’s other projects in 1984 included: a voter registration campaign to transport fifty‐one high schoolers to register at the Registrar of Voters Office; the purchasing of 5,000 trash bags for the city as a part of the Mayor’s Clean City Program; and bi‐monthly visits to two nursing homes to host bingo games.180 Additionally, Zeta Psi Lambda Chapter increased its Ulric Pryce  Memorial  Scholarship  from  $1,500  to  $2,000  and  contributed $2,000 more than what was asked from each alumni chapter in support of  the  Million  Dollar  Fund  Drive.  A  Mayor’s  Plaque  and  letters  of commendation from both Governor Edwin Edwards and United States Senator Russell Long were awarded to the chapter for its community service efforts.181

Brother William Gray was responsible for leading several successful legislations by his fourth term in the United States House of Representatives in 1984. He authored the bill that established the African Development Foundation that delivered United States aid to African villages and a piece of legislation that increased the number of minority and female Foreign Service officers. Additionally, Gray helped design the Philadelphia Mortgage Plan that created over $100 million in residential mortgages for neighborhoods in the inner city.182 In the courts, he was the “Gray” in Gray v. Serruto, the case that mandated financial damages be paid by those who discriminate in the rental of multi‐family housing. In this case, Gray and his wife were told by an apartment complex that there were no available apartments, while a white couple that toured the apartments later that day were told that there were two available units. Because of this discrimination, Gray sued the apartment building owner and superintendent for an immediate injunction to make a suitable apartment available to him.183 The court stated that Gray had in fact been discriminated against because he was African American, and that he was entitled to an injunction that required the defendant to accept him as a tenant. The court also held that Gary was entitled to nominal damages of $500, but no punitive damages. Gray was also the founder of five non‐profit housing corporations responsible for more than $20 million in low to moderate income housing.184

In 1984, Napoleon Williams, Brother Julius Levonne Chambers, and James C. Fuller, Jr. litigated Uzzell v. Friday before the Middle District of North Carolina. This suit began in 1974, initiated by two white students at the University of North Carolina—Chapel Hill. They sought declaratory and injunctive relief against three practices at the university: (1) subsidization of a campus organization, the Black Student Movement (BSM), which until after the suit was filed excluded whites from membership; (2) a provision in the Student Constitution which requires that up to two minority race students be appointed to the student legislature, the Campus Governing Council (Council), if a like number of students is not elected to the Council; and (3) the predecessor to a provision in the Instrument of Student Judicial Governance (Instrument), which establishes a statutory scheme of giving student defendants the right to require that a majority of the judges of an individual panel of the student honor court, named the Undergraduate Court, be of his race or sex. All three practices were alleged to violate the Fourteenth Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1871.

The Court granted summary judgment for the defendants on the grounds that the claim concerning BSM was moot because of the subsequent admission of whites and that the other two claims failed to state a cause or controversy under Article III of the Constitution. On appeal, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the Court’s ruling on BSM, but reversed its ruling on the other two claims and remanded with instructions to enter summary judgment for plaintiffs. The Supreme Court vacated the Fourth Circuit judgment and remanded the case for further consideration due to the decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke. The Fourth Circuit reaffirmed its previous decisions. Months later, two new appointees to the Court were commissioned and the previous decision was withdrawn because it had been inappropriate for one of the previous judges to sit on the panel for that case. The third decision of the Court affirmed the BSM decision, but vacated the judgment with respect to the minority provisions governing the Council and Undergraduate Court, and remanded the case. The District Court held that the provisions, even if well‐ intentioned, were to be struck down as a denial of plaintiff’s rights to equal protection of the law. Plaintiffs were granted declaratory and injunctive relief.185

In 1985, Brother Charles C. Teamer became Alpha Phi Alpha’s twenty‐ seventh General President.186 Members of Alpha Phi Alpha have a longstanding dedication to furthering public policy initiatives. In General President Teamer’s inaugural address in January 1985, he quoted President John F. Kennedy and told the crowd, “[a]sk not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country.”187 At the Seventy‐Ninth Anniversary General Convention in 1985, President Teamer announced that membership and finances were strong.188 Brother Blanton announced that 1,125 college brothers and 397 alumni brothers were initiated into the Fraternity that year and the total number of paid members reached 12,079.189 However, President Teamer advised that the Fraternity needed to create a legal department to address issues with hazing.190 Brother Davis provided a document to brothers at the convention titled, “Pledgee Agreement Concerning Hazing” and advised that each chapter advisor needed to educate potential applicants about the agreement.191 At the Fraternity’s Seventy‐ Ninth Anniversary General Convention in August, the Committee on Public Policy made “Free South Africa” its primary focus.192 The apartheid laws in effect when President Teamer took office severely limited black ownership of land in South Africa.193 These laws restricted civil liberties and controlled mobility.194 Alpha Phi Alpha viewed the apartheid laws in South Africa as a more severe form of the Jim Crow laws in the United States and sought to eradicate them.195 Even more, at the Anniversary General Convention in 1985, Brother Dellums criticized Ronald Reagan for the United States’ role in providing arms to Islamic fundamentalists in exchange for the release of hostages in Lebanon.196

By 1985, the Alpha Merit Group in Dallas had given over $20,000 in scholarships to students in the area and helped more than 2,000 young people on a one to one basis. Brother Earnest Wallace, known as “Mr. Alpha” in Dallas, was responsible for setting up the program, although the article did not mention when it was that it was founded.197 In January of 1985, Brother Isidore J. Lamothe, Jr. gave a proposal to Alpha Phi Alpha’s Board of Directors that suggested the Fraternity adopt a Youth Program that heavily involved the Boy Scouts of America. At a subsequent meeting the board adopted the proposal and made efforts to plan what the program would look like. It emphasized three different areas: it encouraged all Fraternity chapters to sponsor a Scout unit, asked brothers to volunteer on the Boy Scout committees and boards in their districts and counties, and referred qualified people for positions as professional scouters.198

In 1985, Epsilon Gamma Chapter (Bishop College) was named “Most Outstanding Fraternity” on Bishop College’s campus by the student government for its service efforts.199 The chapter successfully co‐sponsored its annual telethon for the United Negro College Fund with one of its brothers serving as the keynote speaker, and around Thanksgiving, the brothers canvassed neighborhoods and collected more than 200 canned goods for families in the area.200 Epsilon Eta Chapter (Eastern Michigan University) participated in the all‐city Anti‐ Apartheid March, which was planned by one of its members, Brother Forrest Branch. Over 400 people attended the event, the culmination of an entire Anti‐Apartheid Awareness Week that the brothers organized. Epsilon Eta Chapter also worked throughout the year to raise money for UNICEF. In prior years, the chapter had been successful at raising over $1,000 for UNICEF in their fundraising efforts.201

Pi Pi Chapter (Union College) held both a clothing drive and a food drive in 1985. Its clothing drive was held on campus for the Salvation Army, and the canned food drive gathered twenty‐five grocery bags for Saint Joseph’s Church Annual Thanksgiving Day Charity Dinner for those without homes.202 In the spring, the brothers also donated $200 to the Mont Pleasant Boys Club and established a peer counseling program there as well.203 Over the Christmas holidays, Kappa Chi and Delta Kappa Lambda chapters (South Carolina) got together to raise funds for a family whose father had recently lost his eyesight to diabetes. They raised money by asking local churches and various organizations at Francis Marion College for donations. By the end of January, $729 had been given to the family.204

Zeta Zeta Lambda Chapter (Queens County, New York) assisted in the implementation of a community welfare program called Family Dimensions in 1985. The program sought to unify various establishments and organizations throughout the community to help prevent African American children from being placed in the area’s ineffective foster care system. Family Dimensions sponsored parenting education programs, the adoption of African American children, support groups, and school programs to help achieve this goal. Brother Gailliard of Zeta Zeta Lambda Chapter was further successful in obtaining a grant of $1,850 from IBM Corporation for Family Dimensions.205

Alpha Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Montgomery, Alabama) presented a check for $6,000 to the Fairview Medical Center in 1985. The Fraternity also sponsored an “extravaganza” to raise funds to renovate the main lobby of the center and to purchase new wheelchairs for its patients.206 Mu Zeta Lambda Chapter (Lakeland, Florida) delivered a program at eleven different high‐schools throughout Polk County that addressed the issue of alcohol abuse. The presentations centered on a film called “When to Say When” that helped students understand how to recognize their personal alcohol consumption limits. The Fraternity sponsored the program in conjunction with Bernie Little Beer Distributors.207

Beta Psi Lambda Chapter (Los Angeles, California) held a couple of fundraisers and events for its Scholarship and Housing Program and the United Negro College Fund in 1984 and 1985. The chapter hosted a dance show called “An Evening in the Caribbean” that raised over $2,000, and one brother also appeared on television to present $1,000 to the United Negro College Fund.208 Kappa Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Landover, Maryland) held its Annual Scholarship Cabaret in October of 1985. The event was incredibly successful, bringing in $10,000 for the chapter’s scholarship fund. Additionally, the brothers distributed twenty food baskets to families around Prince George’s County around the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays.209

Zeta Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Red Bank, New Jersey) had an extremely successful and charitable year in 1985. In May the brothers donated $1,000 to the United Way in Monmouth County, and in June they awarded five scholarships totaling $3,000 to graduating seniors in the area.210 The chapter held its Third Annual Charity Ball in October, raising more than $10,000 for several causes, including the chapter’s scholarship fund and a $1,000 donation to the N.A.A.C.P. on the night of the ball. December brought the presentation of $2,000 from the Fraternity to the United Negro College Fund at its annual telethon. Finally, the brothers donated $600 to a local church and $200 to the Rutgers University Paul Robeson Center along with the purchasing of a Commodore 64 Computer for the Asbury Park Boys Club’s computer literacy program.211

In October 1984, Charles Stephen Ralston, along with Jack Greenberg, Brother Julius LeVonne Chambers, Deborah Fins, Gail J. Wright, and Richard H. Dinkins, litigated Leonard Webb v. Board of Education of Dyer County, Tennessee before the United States Supreme Court. The Board of Education of Dyer County terminated Webb who claimed that it was due to his race, in violation of various civil rights statutes. In this case, the Supreme Court found that Webb was not entitled to attorney fees for time spent by his attorneys “pursuing optional administrative proceedings before the local school board.”212 Webb was not owed attorney’s fees despite being the prevailing party in the initial case. The Supreme Court explained that the District Court has the discretion to award attorney’s fees, and that Webb was not automatically entitled to attorney’s fees as a prevailing party, especially because the statute he sued under did not require that he pursue other available state remedies.

In 1986, Alpha Phi Alpha’s issues with hazing continued when the Board of Directors issued a state of emergency and ceased all pledging activities.213 Members at the meeting noted that there were five lawsuits pending against the Fraternity that threatened the Fraternity’s financial livelihood.214 The board subsequently passed a resolution that gave President Teamer the ability to create a National Risk Management Task Force to ensure that all chapters were trained in pledging procedures and protocol.215 Nonetheless, Free South Africa remained a major priority for the Fraternity.216 At the Eightieth Anniversary General Convention in 1986, activities ended early so members could speak with their Congressional representatives about voting against legislation that promoted the apartheid.217 The Public Policy Statement that year encouraged Congress to withdraw investments in South Africa and ban South African imports until the apartheid came to an end.218

During the Fraternity’s Eightieth Anniversary General Convention in Washington, D.C., all the brothers performed a “Capitol Hill Blitz” in which they went to the Capitol to lobby for sanctions against the government of South Africa.219 They organized themselves by states and sought out their representatives and senators to urge their support for the upcoming sanctions bill. The measure was approved shortly afterward.220 Alpha Phi Alpha awarded Brother Adrian Wallace the Alumni Brother of the Year Award in 1986. As President of Zeta Psi Lambda Chapter (Lake Charles, Louisiana) for three years, many chapter programs were implemented under his leadership. Among them was a Remedial Reading Program, a $130,000 Summer Feeding Program for children of low‐income families, a Minority Business Seminar and Directory, and a Leadership Institute.221

In 1986, Zeta Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Red Bank, New Jersey) received special recognition by the Lakewood, New Jersey Town News for its community service efforts. Specifically, the three‐column article cited the chapter’s $2,000 donation to the United Negro College Fund and its contributions to the Monmouth Boys Club, the N.A.A.C.P., the Ethiopian Relief Fund, and the Rutgers University Paul Robeson Center.222 Howard University’s Beta Chapter held its Annual Martin Luther King, Jr. celebration in January of 1986, which collected donations to repair fire‐caused damages at the Carter G. Woodson Center. Pennsylvania United States Representative Brother William Gray was the keynote speaker, and his speech was broadcasted nationally on C‐SPAN. The brothers also held weekly tutoring sessions with students at Gage Eckington Elementary School and saw movies with them on Saturday mornings.223

In November of 1986, Iota Alpha Chapter (George Mason University) sponsored its First Annual Step Show to raise funds and collect canned goods. With all the proceeds, the chapter was able to feed eight families a full course Thanksgiving meal through the Heritage Fellowship United Church of Christ.224 The brothers of Tau Chapter (University of Illinois) participated in several community renovation programs in the 1986‐1987 year. The brothers painted fifteen rooms at the Opportunity House, a home for the elderly, handicapped, and mentally disabled. They also painted the recreational room at the Champaign Children’s Home.225

Delta Iota Chapter (Rutgers University) participated in many service programs during the 1986‐1987 academic year. The brothers offered tutoring services at The Lincoln School, several “Go‐to‐High‐ School, Go‐to‐College” programs at high schools in New Brunswick, a Halloween and an Easter party at the Greater Day Care Center, and finally a Thanksgiving dinner for residents at the Ebenezer Senior Citizens Home.226 Delta Iota Chapter’s (Rutgers University) biggest fundraising event of the year was its Seventh Annual Stepshow Jamboree that featured step‐teams from several different states. The show raised $2,300 for seven different organizations, including the Greater Day Care Center, the March of Dimes, the United Negro College Fund, and the Nyerere Educational Institute.227

The 1986’s Alumni Chapter of the Year was awarded to Beta Beta Lambda Chatper (Miami, Florida) for its community efforts. One of which was its large Project Alpha program that held four seminars on the difficulties of teenage pregnancy for more than seventy‐five teen males. The chapter received a grant from the March of Dimes for $1,000 to help underwrite the costs of the program.228 Eta Sigma Lambda Chapter (San Jose, California) sponsored a Stay‐in‐High‐School, Go‐to‐ College workshop as part of the city’s celebration of Martin Luther King, Jr. in January of 1986. Three to four hundred high school students, parents, and teachers attended the four‐hour event, which stressed the importance of attending college after secondary school.229 Mu Zeta Lambda Chapter (Polk County, Florida) sponsored its Annual Alpha Blood Drive‐Hypertension check in March of 1986. The free screenings were held at the Citrus Regional Blood Center in Lakeland, where the chapter had also set up an Alpha Blood Bank through which the brothers donated at least a pint of blood a year.230

The brothers of Delta Theta Lambda Chapter (Normal, Alabama) teamed up with the collegiate chapter at Alabama A & M to sponsor a Project Alpha Workshop. Over seventy male teenagers attended the workshop and received education on teenage pregnancy and preventative measures available. Delta Theta Lambda Chapter (Normal, Alabama) also held its Annual Toy Dance in December that collected toys for families in need for Christmas presents.231 Alpha Eta Lambda Chapter’s (Houston, Texas) Annual Toy Dance in Houston was similarly successful. At the end of the evening, the brothers had gathered over 200 toys for children in the area who would otherwise not have presents to open on Christmas. The chapter’s “Take It To The Sky” project, in which brothers with pilot licenses took underprivileged children on airplane rides, had also successfully taken 100 kids on rides by 1986.232

Iota Alpha Lambda Chapter (Aberdeen, Maryland) held its largest fundraiser of 1986 in February through its Annual Founders’ Day celebration. All the money collected provided the funds for the chapter’s Donald J. Waldon Memorial Scholarship at Harford Community College, food baskets for several families, bus trips to baseball games with underprivileged children, and its fuel oil program for families in need. The chapter also volunteered as escorts for patients at Perry Point Hospital.233 Mu Mu Lambda Chapter (Chicago, Illinois) met with nine promising high school seniors throughout the 1985‐1986 year to build their leadership skills. The students participated in several workshops and seminars on topics such as human sexuality and teen pregnancy, college preparation, and career paths. At the end of the year, the chapter held its Annual Beautillion to honor the students and present $9,450 in scholarships.234

In March of 1986, Gamma Omicron Lambda Chapter (Albany, Georgia) held its Third Annual All Comers’ Health Fair in the Albany Mall. Over 200 people received health services such as eye  exams, blood pressure screenings, blood chemistry tests, Coronary Heart Disease Profiles, and dental, height, and weight evaluations. All of the services were free of charge except for the blood chemistry exams and Coronary Heart Disease Profiles. Local physicians administered the exams.235 Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia) implemented a Project Alpha program during the entire month of March in 1986 for over 300 students between the ages of eleven and eighteen. The project focused on the medical, legal, and psychological aspects associated with teenage pregnancy. Mayor of Atlanta, Brother Andrew J. Young, and several sports professionals participated in the program, bringing in local television and radio stations to cover the various events.236

Gamma Phi Lambda Chapter (Oakland, California) held a hugely successful fundraiser for the Alpha Phi Alpha W. Byron Rumford Scholarship Foundation. The event was a $100‐per‐plate dinner dance for nearly 400 guests, including Oakland Mayor Brother Lionel Wilson and several other political and public figures. The evening raised $20,000 for the foundation, and the next year’s goal was set for $40,000.237 Delta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Cleveland, Ohio) held groundbreaking ceremonies for the chapter’s conversion of the E. M. Williams School into a $2 million housing development in 1986. The development, Alpha Phi Alpha Housing Estates, would consist of fifty units for the elderly.238

Beta Psi Lambda Chapter (Los Angeles, California) pledged financial support to two funds. The chapter pledged to give $10,000 to the 100 Black Men’s Young Black Scholars Program, having already paid a $2,500 installment.239 It also pledged to donate at least $1,000 to the United Negro College Fund every year.240 Kappa Phi Lambda Chapter (Columbia, Maryland) had a very successful scholarship program during the 1986‐1987 fraternal year. The chapter’s scholarships and awards for outstanding young people in the area totaled $6,000, the largest of which was its $2,000 Martin Luther King, Jr. Scholarship.241 Zeta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Reston, Virginia) held its First Annual Toys for Tots Christmas party in December of 1986. Over eighty children attended the event and received food and gifts donated from the brothers and a visit from Santa. The event came right after the chapter had donated several Thanksgiving baskets to families in need around the area.242

In May 1986, Larry Menefee, James Blacksher, Wanda Cochran, Terry Davis, Deborah Fins, and Brother Julius Chambers litigated Dillard v. Crenshaw County before the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama. This case was a challenge to the election methods of county commissioners in nine Alabama counties. Dillard and others eventually settled with three of the nine counties. The case was before the court in this instance because of several motions that dealt with (1) whether or not Dillard was entitled to injunctive relief; (2) whether the claims against three counties were barred by res judicata; (3) whether claims against five of the counties should have been transferred to a completely different district; and (4) whether plaintiff classes should have been certified. The court concluded that (1) preliminary injunctive relief was warranted in five of six counties; (2) a claim against one county was barred by res judicata;

(2)   the remaining claims against six counties should have been tried in the same district; and (4) that plaintiff classes should have been certified.243

In July of 1986, Avon Williams, Jr., Richard Dinkins, Joel Berger, Theodore Shaw, and Brother Julius Chambers litigated Geier v. Alexander on behalf of one the plaintiff‐intervenors, Raymond Richardson before the Sixth Circuit Court. This case arose when it was proven that the district court found that years after the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, Tennessee’s public universities still had racial requirements. This case affirmed what was found in a previous case in which a judge approved a consent decree that included affirmative action provisions. In this decree, the court held that racial quotas to accept more minority students to help eliminate residual effects of segregation would not deprive nonminority students of equal protection.244

In 1986, Charles Stephen Ralston and Brother Julius LeVonne Chambers represented the racially aggrieved parties in the Library of Congress v. Shaw case before the Supreme Court. This case involved an attorney for a African American employee who brought a job‐related racial discrimination action against the Library of Congress and moved for attorney fees. At the trial level, the court ordered the Library to pay attorney’s fees. The Court of Appeals upheld this decision, explaining that Congress had waived the government’s immunity from interest by making it liable, similar to a private person. However, the Supreme Court held that while Congress waived its immunity from suit and from recovery of reasonable attorney’s fees, it did not waive the federal government’s traditional immunity from interest. Consequently, the decision from the Court of Appeals was reversed and remanded.245

In December 1986, Brother Julius Chambers, Lani Guinier, and Leslie Winner litigated Thornburg v. Gingles before the Supreme Court. The ruling of this case invalidated North Carolina General Assembly districts and led to increased single‐member districts. The decision of the case came from a unanimous Supreme Court. It stated that “the legacy of official discrimination . . . acted in concert with the multimember districting scheme to impair the ability of . . . cohesive groups of black voters to participate equally in the political process and to elect candidates of their choice.” It began with African American voters of North Carolina saying that the redistricting plan impaired African American citizens’ ability to elect representatives of their choice.246

At the 1987 Anniversary General Convention, the Fraternity’s Committee on Public Policy drafted an emergency resolution that stated Alpha Phi Alpha’s “unequivocal opposition” to the nomination of Robert Bork to the United States Supreme Court. Drafted during the early assembly deliberations over the nomination, the resolution was telegrammed to the White House and the Capitol from the convention in San Francisco. Also at the convention was a “Together Against Apartheid” rally.247 Members at the General Convention staged a rally against the apartheid and showed a documentary titled, “Witness Against Apartheid.”248 After the documentary concluded, Brother William Nelson, chairman of the Department of African American studies at the Ohio State University, moderated a discussion with members about the documentary.249 Several speakers gave presentations, and the South African Council of Churches was named the convention’s designated charity. By the end of the convention, $5,000 had been raised and donated to the philanthropy group.250 The National Education Association honored the late Brother Archie Lacey at its 1987 Human and Civil Rights Awards Dinner. His accomplishments included participating in the Montgomery Bus Boycott alongside Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and coordinating Bergen County, New Jersey’s involvement in the 1963 March on Washington.251

The 1987 College Chapter of the Year Award went to Gamma Xi Chapter (University of California at Los Angeles) for its efforts in community service. The brothers established a tutoring program at Dorsey High School that operated on Saturday mornings from nine to noon. They also launched a voter registration drive over the course of one week, in which the brothers set up a table on Bruin Walk from ten in the morning until two in the afternoon every day. More than 250 African American students had registered to vote by the end of the week.252 Additionally, Gamma Xi Chapter’s holiday programs included a Thanksgiving canned food drive in conjunction with the campus’ Delta Sigma Theta Chapter that collected over 300 cans for the Midnight Mission for the homeless and the elderly. Finally, the brothers also assisted the Challengers Boys and Girls Club in hosting anti‐drug and anti‐gang discussions.253

Alpha Tau Chapter’s (University of Akron) Alpha Week program in March of 1987 consisted of a couple of fundraisers and community service programs. The first was a “Rock‐A‐Thon,” in which the brothers alternated rocking in a rocking chair non‐stop for four days to raise $150 for both the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Reginald Vincent White Scholarship funds. The week also included a free blood pressure check that brought in more than 400 people to be screened.254 In the 1987 to 1988 academic year, Beta Chapter (Howard University) added a couple of new service programs to its continuous tutoring project at the Gage Eckington Elementary School. The brothers volunteered for the Chapel Escort Service as drivers who would transport patients from the Howard University Hospital to and from weekly services at Howard’s Rankin  Chapel. They also sponsored a Big Brothers and Sisters program with the chapter’s sweethearts to provide guidance for young people in the Washington, D.C. area.255

Alpha Tau Chapter (University of Akron) was heavily involved with the 1987 November elections in the Akron/Summit County area. Members of the Fraternity distributed literature and information on improving the rights of child abuse victims and assisted Brother Michael Williams of the area’s graduate chapter to win a council seat in Akron.256 In 1987, Delta Xi Chapter (Central State College) undertook the Frontline Outreach Center, a Christian organization that moved to encourage positive values in the area’s youth. Fraternity members acted as tutors, supervisors, and coaches in their assistance to the organization.257

In the fall of 1987, Theta Upsilon Chapter (Arkansas State University) held an Alpha Phi Alpha Walk‐a‐Thon to raise money for the March of Dimes. The brothers also participated in a national march in the spring that brought the chapter’s total donation to the March of Dimes for the year to $723.50.258 Gamma Phi Chapter (Tuskegee University) also carried out a number of community service projects over the course of the 1987 to 1988 academic year. The brothers delivered canned foods and clothing to people in need around the city and held a weekly storybook hour for area children. They also sponsored a bus trip for university students to attend a demonstration against the Confederate Flag at the state’s capital. Finally, the chapter held several Project Alpha workshops and participated in a Big Brother program.259

The first Project Alpha program to be sponsored on the West Coast was that of Nu Tau Lambda Chapter (Orange County, California). Forty young men participated in the “Man to Man Talk About Teen Pregnancy” on January 31, 1987 at Rancho Santiago College’s campus.260 Gamma Eta Lambda Chapter (Austin, Texas) provided a couple of services for its community in 1987, the first of which was continual support of Meals‐on‐Wheels, for which the brothers would deliver food to elderly people three times a week during their lunch hours.261 The second was a donation through The Alpha Foundation of a $1,600 computer to the Black Arts Alliance, a community non‐profit Arts Umbrella that promoted African American art and artists. The computer allowed the organization to automate its mailing lists and boost fundraising efforts.262 Alpha Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Montgomery, Alabama) sponsored a number of very successful community programs in 1987. The brothers held a clothing and furniture drive for people who were forced to move out of their neighborhood when it was condemned by the State Health Department.263 They also sponsored a voter‐registration drive that resulted in 500 newly registered African American voters before Alabama’s upcoming elections. Finally, Alpha Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Montgomery, Alabama) held a program called Operation Fruit Basket that assigned brothers to deliver fruit baskets to nursing home residents.264

The 1987 Alumni Chapter of the Year Award was given to Epsilon Lambda Chapter (St. Louis, Missouri) for its service efforts as well. The chapter’s Anti‐Apartheid Committee was heavily involved with the boycotting of Shell Oil stations throughout St. Louis. In May, thirty brothers volunteered their time after the St. Louis Board of Education asked the chapter to participate in a role model program for teen parents.265 In February, the chapter held its Annual Valentine’s Day Dance to raise money for the Education Foundation and also carried out its Project Comfort Program in conjunction with Union Electric Corporation, in which the brothers weatherized the houses of senior citizens for the winter months. Finally, the Epsilon Lambda Chapter’s youth development efforts included the sponsoring of a local Boy Scouts troop and several Project Alpha workshops with the league of Negro Women and Planned Parenthood.266

The year 1987 brought Eta Tau Lambda Chapter’s (Akron, Ohio) Tenth Annual Scholarship Awards and Recognition Luncheon for college and high school students from around Ohio. By the fall of 1987, the chapter had given more than $80,000 in scholarships to deserving students.267 The Education Foundation of Gamma Lambda Chapter (Detroit, Michigan) awarded scholarships to eight male high school graduates from the Detroit area in 1987. At the Alpha’s Annual Scholarship Luncheon to honor the students and their families, each student received $1,000 for their freshman year at several universities around the nation.268

Delta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Cleveland, Ohio) sponsored 110 underprivileged families during the 1987 holiday season and gave food baskets to each. The families in need were identified through local churches, of which several brothers were pastors. The chapter covered all the costs of the food baskets. In addition, the brothers decided to follow through on the Fraternity’s national alliance with the Boy Scouts of America and sponsor a local troop, having one brother serving as scoutmaster.269 Gamma Mu Lambda Chapter’s (Tallahassee, Florida) largest community program of 1987 was its Alpha Leadership Program. Starting in February, the brothers hosted thirty high school students from Leon County, Florida on the Florida A & M University campus for six consecutive Saturdays. Their meetings taught the students study and test‐taking skills (all were required to take an SAT practice exam), success motivation, decision‐making, and communication skills. At the end of the program, three students were awarded scholarships totaling

$2,000 at a banquet for all the participants.270 In addition to the Alpha Leadership Program, Gamma Mu Lambda Chapter coordinated a Project Alpha program on teenage pregnancy with the Beta Nu Chapter (Florida A & M University), the March of Dimes, and the Governor’s Constituency for Children.271

In 1987, Eta Lambda Chapter (Atlanta, Georgia) organized an extensive program that dealt with male responsibility in teen pregnancy. Various workshops were held at the John F. Kennedy Community School and the Warren Memorial Boys Club with special visits from Brother and Mayor Andrew Young along with other state and local leaders. The brothers also distributed informational literature at a local mall as part of the program.272 Omicron Lambda Chapter’s (Birmingham, Alabama) service efforts of 1987 focused on scholarship and leadership in Alabama’s youth. The chapter awarded $8,000 in scholarships to deserving students pursuing college educations that year. It also sponsored thirteen African American high‐schoolers’ attendance to the Youth Leadership Conference in Nashville, Tennessee.273 Alpha Upsilon Lambda Chapter’s (Montgomery, Alabama) largest public service program of the year was its J. Garrick Hardy benefit program.274 The event featured the “Atlanta Show Biz Kids” from Northside High School of the Arts in Atlanta and brought in over $6,000 in proceeds for several charities in Montgomery. The chapter also used part of the funds to initiate a community service and endorsement fund.275

In April 1987, Ellis Turnage, Brother Julius L. Chambers, James M. Nabrit, III (Omega Psi Phi), Deborah Fins, Robert B. McDuff, and Pamela S. Karlan litigated Martin v. Allain before the United States District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi. Two plaintiffs named Martin and Kirksey were black voters of Mississippi that challenged numbered post‐election methods used to elect county judges in different counties of Mississippi. They claimed that the methods violated Section V of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, as well as 42 U.S.C. § 1983. These violations included the diluting, minimizing and cancelling out of African American voters’ strength. The case was tried before a District Judge with no jury. Discovery showed that Mississippi had a history of racial discrimination in its voting practices including poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation of African American voters. The court found that Martin and Kirksey sufficiently proved (1) enough African American citizens constituted the district in question that it was acceptable to have a single member district of mainly African Americans as the voting population; (2) African Americans were politically cohesive within the district; and (3) the white voters usually outvoted African Americans so white candidates win more often. For these reasons, the court found that there was “no purposeful discrimination” when the statutes were made and Martin’s constitutional challenge failed.276

In October 1986, John Charles Boger, along with Brother Julius L. Chambers, James M. Nabrit III (Omega Psi Phi), Vivian Berger, Robert H. Stroup, Timothy K. Ford, and Anthony G. Amsterdam litigated Warren McCleskey v. Ralph Kemp, Superintendent, Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Center before the Supreme Court. Warren McCleskey was given the death penalty for armed robbery and murder. McCleskey alleged that the state’s sentencing process was administered in a racially biased manner that violated the Fourteenth Amendment. His claim was based on a study that found that race was an aggravating factor in capital sentencing determinations. The Supreme Court ruled that the study was not substantial enough to provide evidence for a reversal of McCleskey’s conviction. Even if the statistical data of the study were accepted at face value, McCleskey did not show that deliberate bias existed in his specific case.277

In June 1987, William Taylor, Dianne Piche, Brother Julius Chambers, Theodore Shaw, Norman Chachkin, Thomas Henderson, and Clifton Files litigated Parents for Quality Education with Integration, Incorporated v. Fort Wayne Community Schools Corporation before the United States District Court for the Northern District of Indiana. PQEI (the plaintiff in this case) claimed that FWCS (the defendant in the case) maintained a “racially dual school system”.

PQEI stated that FWCS “failed to act effectively, pursuant to the 1949 Act, to require and accomplish the disestablishment of racially dual school systems in the State, including the dual system in Fort Wayne.” In addition, PQEI said that FWCS also did not take any action to dismantle the racially dual school system. Any claims made based on the Thirteenth Amendment were dismissed, and the State’s motion to dismiss PQEI’s claim was granted.278

In November 1986, Alice Beasley, Henry Hewitt, John Erickson, Brother Julius Chambers, Lowell Johnston, and Judith Reed litigated Shimkus v. The Gersten Companies before the Ninth Circuit Court. This case involved a man named Robert Shimkus who filed a class‐action lawsuit against a property management company, claiming that they violated the Civil Rights Act by discriminating against tenants at six of their locations. In February 1985, the district court approved something called the “Shimkus Decree” as the final judgement of the case. In effect, the Decree gave African American tenants preferential consideration for available apartments. It also stated that it superseded the government order to the extent that they were in conflict. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals later found that it abused its discretion by not including a provision about preferential treatment of non‐ African American minorities that were also discriminated against. Accordingly, the appeals court reversed and remanded the decision.279

By 1988, Alpha Phi Alpha was contributing around $1 million nationwide to charitable causes every year.280 The Fraternity’s commitment to philanthropy was largely spurred by former General President Walter Washington’s initiation of the Million Dollar Fund Drive in the late 1970s for the N.A.A.C.P., the National Urban League, and the United Negro College Fund. Benjamin Hooks, an N.A.A.C.P. executive at the time, reported in a magazine article that the largest single donation the organization ever received came from Alpha Phi Alpha through Washington’s national campaign.281 General President Ponder, in 1988, challenged members to “confront the complexities of knowing and the tentativeness of knowledge” and to control knowledge for the betterment of the members.282 Alpha Phi Alpha aimed to lower the illiteracy rate among black youths, which they viewed as the gateway to crime and incarceration.283

At the 1988 General Convention, among the social justice committees and commissions, the Commission on Racial Justice was established. General President Ponder appointed Brothers Milton C. Davis and Ozell Sutton as co‐chairs. Brothers Davis and Sutton outlined the various steps that the Commission on Racial Justice took to address these obstacles, these steps included brother participation in the “Silent March on Washington,” the dedication of the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama, and the N.A.A.C.P.’s 1990 Civil Rights Bill drafting. Perhaps most significantly, the Commission was charged with planning the public program of the 1990 General Convention, which featured a symposium including leaders from the N.A.A.C.P., the League of United Latin American Citizens, and the American Jewish Committee. This symposium served as a keynote event of the convention. At the conclusion of the 1990 report, Brothers Sutton and Davis called for universal support for the Commission on Racial Justice, citing the quest for racial justice as integral to the mission of Alpha Phi Alpha.284

The Fraternity made a special note in its Public Policy Statement of four pending Congressional bills for which it encouraged brothers to wholeheartedly support. The first was the Anti‐Apartheid Act Amendments, sponsored by Brother Congressman Ronald Dellums, which enacted six new sanctions against South Africa, including bans on all United States’ investments, imports, exports, and intelligence and military cooperation with the country.285 The second was the Racial Justice Act of 1988, which allowed the use of statistical and other evidence to dispute the death penalty on the grounds of disproportionate use of capital punishment with regards to certain racial groups. The Act also prohibited the government from implementing the death penalty in racially disproportionate patterns.286 The third piece of legislation was the National Comprehensive Housing Act, sponsored by Brother Congressman Dellums. The Act had several provisions that would expand direct public financing of housing production, eliminate the use of housing for discriminatory and exclusionary purposes, and increase the appropriations given to the Federal Housing Assistance (up to $53 billion annually).287 Finally, Alpha endorsed the Universal Voter Registration Act of 1988, which installed national standards for voter registration in elections for federal offices.288 Alpha Phi Alpha was one of the cosponsors of a program called RAISE (Raising Ambition Instills Self Esteem) established by the Fund for Education Excellence in Baltimore. The program was designed to raise the graduation rate of children at inner‐city schools and improve their academic performance.289

Pi Kappa Chapter (California State University‐Northridge) teamed up with the university’s Zeta Beta Tau Fraternity chapter to sponsor an interesting charity event called the Penny Mile. The brothers laid out a mile‐long piece of tape that was cut into thirds around campus, on which students would drop coins and donations. At the end of the fundraiser, $1,450 had been raised to benefit handicapped students on campus.290 Iota Zeta Chapter (University of Maryland) teamed up with the campus chapter of Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority to hold weekly tutoring sessions with gifted students at the Bunker Hill Elementary School. The brothers also conducted rap sessions with the children about school, friends, and anything else that they wanted to talk about.291

In addition to sponsoring a voter registration drive with the Baptist Student Union at the University of Wisconsin‐Milwaukee, Epsilon Tau Chapter worked closely with the Minority Information Center in 1988. Through the center, the brothers visited several area high schools to discuss pursuing higher education and the advantages of holding a university degree.292 Kappa Alpha Chapter (University of Alabama) won the Alabama Chapter of the Year Award in 1988 for its efforts in the community. The brothers spent every other weekend leading a Boy Scout troop made up of underprivileged children from around Tuscaloosa. It also held a Project Alpha workshop for local teens to inform them of the consequences of unsafe sex and teenage pregnancy.293 Alpha Gamma Chapter (Brown University) held several community service events in 1988 including a “Move the Crowd” party and clothing drive for those in need across Rhode Island. The brothers also held their Fifteenth Annual Spring Cabaret that raised more than

$1,500 for the Investment in Diversity Scholarship Fund at Brown University.294

Omicron Upsilon Chapter (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute) directed its service efforts towards Troy Middle School and Troy High School in the 1987‐1988 academic year. The brothers implemented a Big Brother Program at the middle school to encourage them to keep pursuing their education and hold counseling sessions.295 They also developed its Excelsior Scholarship for two graduating Troy High School students, covering the cost of textbooks at the universities the students would be attending in the fall. In addition to the scholarship, Omicron Upsilon Chapter also held math and science tutoring services at the high school in the afternoons.296 Alpha Theta Chapter (University of Iowa) used its house to inform citizens in the area about the procedures of a caucus. The week after the instruction, the chapter led a march from the house to the location of the caucus for all to be active participants.297

Omicron Kappa Chapter (Auburn University) held a number of community programs in the 1987‐1988 fraternal year. The chapter cohosted the “O.K. Corral” on campus, in which all the black Greek organizations sponsored a benefit step show that generated more than $1,200 for both the Lee County Department of Human Resources and the United Negro College Fund. Over the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays, the brothers received donations form supermarkets and other citizens for its food basket drives.298 The chapter also made monthly visits to local schools throughout the year to present lectures on topics such as drug abuse, sexual responsibility, higher education, and self‐ motivation. Furthermore, the brothers held an Easter egg hunt for children at the Drake Nursery School and a fundraiser for the Lee County Alliance, an elderly care organization.299

After the Mayor of Columbia, Missouri made several racist comments, Seta Alpha Chapter teamed up with Xi Epsilon Chapter to work towards recalling the mayor. The brothers circulated a petition and went to City Council meetings, ultimately winning a recall.300 Mu Beta Chapter (University of Tennessee) at Martin’s 1988 service programs included canned food drives, visits to nursing homes, tutoring programs, and voter registration drives that resulted in more than 300 newly registered voters.301 The brothers of Beta Omicron Chapter (Tennessee State University) were very active in their service efforts in 1988. In addition to holding regular tutoring sessions at the Bethlehem Center for underprivileged students, they donated $1,100 to various organizations such as the United Negro College Fund and the Union Mission of Nashville. Finally, the chapter organized an AIDS workshop on campus that raised awareness for the disease.302

Epsilon Pi Chapter (Norfolk State University) held a number of programs in the community over the course of the 1988‐1989 school year. Around Thanksgiving, the brothers collected food to put in Thanksgiving baskets for three families in the Tidewater area. The chapter also “adopted” several grandparents at the Calvary Tower Nursing Home and continued its Project Runner Tutorial Program, which had been in operation since 1976.303 Gamma Mu Lambda Chapter (Tallahassee, Florida) participated in two programs called Octoberfix and Operation Springclean in 1988. The brothers worked to repair the roof of a house of one economically disadvantaged family as a part of Octoberfix and cleaned up a predominantly black neighborhood in Tallahassee through Operation Springclean.304 The 1988 College Chapter of the Year Award went to Eta Gamma Chapter (Prairie View A & M University). Some of its service projects for the year included counseling middle and high schoolers, leading a petition against the nomination of Judge Robert Bork for the Supreme Court, holding several political forums, and blood drives for the American Red Cross.305 The chapter also assisted with a local Boy Scout troop, sponsored free sickle cell testing, and sponsored a seminar on how to develop good study skills. Eta Gamma Chapter had won the Texas State Chapter of the Year Award for the previous thirteen consecutive years.306

Brothers in the Los Angeles area worked with the Universal City‐North Hollywood Chamber of Commerce to sponsor an eight‐ year‐old orphan’s appearance on the Kiwanis International Float in the 1988 Rose Bowl Parade. The float was intended to raise awareness for the many children that are available for adoption in the Los Angeles area.307 Alpha Tau Lambda Chapter (Oklahoma) held two fundraising projects every year, which financed its scholarship program. One was an annual scholarship dance, and the other was the Sam Burns, Sr. Memorial Western Dance. In the fifteen years leading up to 1988 that these two programs had been operating, the chapter had awarded more than $30,000 in scholarships to deserving high school seniors who were graduating and pursuing higher education.308

Iota Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Silver Spring, Maryland) teamed up with a number of other organizations and institutes to sponsor a public forum with four respected health professionals on AIDS and its impact on the black community. The program centered on the myths and facts of the virus, the heterosexual spread of the disease, high risk behaviors and preventative measures, and the effects AIDS has on African American women and children. The other cosponsors of the event included the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, the National Institutes of Health, and the Office of Minority Health in the United States Department of Health and Human Services.309 Alpha Nu Lambda Chapter (Tuskegee, Alabama) created a chapter task force to create plans to lobby against several Alabama legislations. The force proved to be quite successful in that most of the bills that it targeted were withdrawn.310

Gamma Tau Lambda Chapter participated in Texas’ Adopt‐a‐ Highway program at the beginning of 1988, cleaning up litter on a two‐ mile stretch of Highway 90. Additionally, the brothers began sponsoring a Boy Scout troop in March with the West Tabernacle Baptist Church and made plans to hold a seminar on teen pregnancy seminar for Project Alpha.311 More than 3,000 young men had participated in the Alpha Merit Group of Alpha Sigma Lambda Chapter (Dallas, Texas) by its twenty‐fifth anniversary in 1988. The program’s purpose was to provide guidance, counseling, and scholarship support for young black males in the Dallas area.312 In August of 1988, Mu Eta Lambda Chapter worked with the Wisconsin N.A.A.C.P. to work out a fair share agreement with Wisconsin Bell.313 The agreement called for increased minority participation and the provision of special minority youth training programs.314

The Springfield Infant Mortality and Teen Pregnancy Coalition gave a grant of $2,400 to the Theta Iota Lambda Chapter (Springfield, Massachusetts) for its Project Alpha program. Iota Lambda Chapter (Indianapolis, Indiana) also held a Project Alpha conference in June of 1988 on the Indiana University‐Purdue University campus. The Indianapolis chapter of the March of Dimes/Birth Defects Foundation supported the event as well.315 Alpha Beta Lambda Chapter (Lexington, Kentucky) won a fifteen‐month battle to rename a city street in honor of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Although the chapter met with resistance among whites, some of whom distributed anti‐King pamphlets connected with the Ku Klux Klan, and also among African Americans, who did not think the street was “fit to bear King’s name,” the chapter ultimately prevailed and the street was renamed in 1988.316

Eta Sigma Lambda Chapter (Palo Alto, California) brought its 1988 Project Alpha participants on a two‐day retreat to the mountains around San Jose. Forty young male students participated in the retreat and learned about the issues of teenage pregnancy.317 Kappa Sigma Lambda (Ft. Hood, Texas) held a hugely successful voter registration drive in September of 1988. More than 1,800 registered to vote through the drive, and those who registered were given the opportunity to buy tickets to the chapter’s Winter Wonderland Ball in November at a discounted price. The proceeds from the Ball went to the chapter’s scholarship and sickle cell anemia funds.318 In 1988, Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) announced that it had given more than $90,000 in its scholarship efforts at its Eleventh Annual Scholarship Awards and Recognition Luncheon, awarding twenty‐eight new scholarships at the same event.319 Delta Rho Lambda Chapter (San Antonio, Texas) received recognition from the Eastside Development Agency of San Antonio for its Project Alpha efforts in 1988. The chapter had held two Project Alpha seminars in the community to assist young men who were struggling with the challenges of teenage pregnancy.320 Additionally, the brothers hosted its Twenty‐First Annual Toy Dance that collected more than 2,000 toys for several agencies around San Antonio.321

Zeta Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Red Bank, New Jersey) won the 1988 Alumni Chapter of the Year Award. The chapter’s scholarship fund was extremely successful, having awarded more than $25,000 in scholarship over the previous five years alone. Its Annual Charity Ball also raised $11,000 in donations to several area service agencies, including $1,500 to the N.A.A.C.P. and $1,000 to the United Negro College Fund.322 Brothers of Phi Lambda Chapter (Raleigh, North Carolina) offered their time as volunteers for the Students‐At‐Risk Program in 1988. Nineteen elementary school students who were identified as at‐risk for dropping out received guidance and counseling from the brothers for weekly forty minute sessions.323

In 1988, Mu Lambda Chapter (Washington, D.C.) gave out seven scholarships totaling $14,000 through its Henry Arthur Callis Scholarship Foundation. Over the previous three years alone, the foundation had given more than $36,000 in scholarships to deserving students in the Washington, D.C. area.324 Alpha Rho Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) carried out its second year of its “Alpha Esquires” youth development program for black males in high school. The program met every other week to have the young men meet African American professional men in the Fraternity in a positive developmental environment. The students also participated in a number of fundraisers and community service projects throughout the year.325 Theta Psi Lambda Chapter (Somerset, New Jersey) held its Emerson James/Richard Sands Scholarship reception. The chapter’s corporate sponsor, the Squibb Corporation, helped the chapter raise more than $20,000 for its scholarship fund. Brother and New York Representative Charles G. Rangel served as the keynote speaker.326

Brothers were also leaving their individual mark. The University of Missouri honored Brother Gus T. Ridgel by establishing the Gus T. Ridgel Fellowship Program for Minority Americans in 1988. Ridgel sued for admission into the university’s economics graduate program in 1950, resulting in a court ruling that led to the first admission of a black student to the University of Missouri. The purpose of the fellowship was to increase the number of minority students in the school’s graduate programs.327 Brother Franklin H. Williams, president of the Phelps Stokes Fund and former United States ambassador to Ghana, headed New York’s Judicial Commission on Minorities in 1988. The commission was charged with improving the perceptions of New York’s state court system on fairness. His work with the committee generated $200,000 of its projected two‐year budget of $700,000.328

Brother Eugene Sawyer became Chicago’s second ever African American mayor in November of 1987 after Harold Washington, the former mayor, passed away. Soon after taking office, Sawyer successfully won the passage of a set of ordinances in the City Council that broke up the preexisting monopoly over the taxicab industry. Sawyer also won passage on Washington’s ordinance that would allow lights at Wrigley field for night Cubs games. He expanded upon Washington’s agenda for affordable housing by setting a goal of 350 units in a demonstration project that previously had a goal of 100 units.329 In April of 1988, Brother Robert Walker was elected Mayor of Viscksburg, Mississippi. He was serving as chairman of the Policy Council of Mississippi Action for Progress‐Head Start at the time of his election. Walker had previously been a member of the 1980 committee appointed by Governor William F. Winter that evaluated Mississippi education. On this committee, Walker recommended large changes that greatly influenced the Mississippi Education Reform Act of 1982.330 Working with the St. Luke’s Community Center, brother Joseph K. Byrd received $49,000 from the City of New Orleans’ Department of Housing and Urban Development to implement the Center’s “Forgotten Partner Program” in 1988. The program was based on the Fraternity’s Project Alpha program.331

In June of 1987, Edward Reibman, David Rose, Samuel Currin, William Bradford Reynolds, David Flynn, Cynthia Drabek, Cressie Thigpen, Jr., Brother Julius Chambers, and Eric Schnapper litigated Bazemore v. Friday before the Fourth Circuit Court. This case involved employees of the North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service, its customers, and others involved with the company who filed suit  against various people in the Federal District Court, alleging racial discrimination violating the Civil Rights Act of 1964. After the initial trial, the court ruled in favor of the Extension Service. Then, upon appeal, another court agreed that Bazemore failed to show that they had been victims of a pattern of salary discrimination because of their race. In addition, the court found that post‐Act discriminatory practices that could be traced to solely pre‐Act salary discrimination were not actionable under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. They also agreed with the previous court that Bazemore’s statistical evidence was inaccurate because “they failed to take account of a number of other variables that could affect the multiple regression analysis.”332 Lastly, the court rejected Bazemore’s claim that the defendants had discriminatory selection of county chairmen, and they reasoned that only the recommendations of the Extensions Service should be taken into account and not any of the final hiring decisions.333

In June 1988, James U. Blacksher, Edward Still, Brother Julius L. Chambers, and Scherlyn Ifill litigated Dillard v. Chilton County Board of Education before the United States District Court of the Middle District of Alabama. In this case, Dillard claimed that the system used to elect people to the Chilton County Commission and Board of Education violated the Voting Rights Act of 1965. A violation of this act occurred if and when official action was taken with racially discriminatory intent, or the action had those results. The Commission as well as the Board agreed with Dillard early on in litigation that the methods of election were in violation of the Act, and came to an agreement to settle it by devising a plan called the “cumulative voting scheme” in which each voter had seven votes to cast in any way he or she chose. There were seven members of the Commission and seven members of the Board of Education. Under this plan, for example, a voter could utilize all of their seven votes for one candidate, five for one and two for another, one vote per candidate, etc. The court ruled that the cumulative voting plan “[was] fair, reasonable, and adequate and [was] not illegal or against public policy.”334

In July 1988, James Blacksher, Larry Menefee, Edward Still, and Brother Julius Chambers litigated Dillard v. Town of Cuba before the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama. Dillard claimed that the Alabama towns of Cuba and Waldo had voting systems that violated the Voting Rights Act of 1965. A violation of this act occurred if and when official action was taken with racially discriminatory intent, or the action had those results. Cuba and Waldo agreed with Dillard early on in the litigation that the methods of election were in violation of the Act, and they came to an agreement to settle it. They agreed on a plan called “limited voting” in which each voter had fewer votes than there are seats to be filled. All parties agreed to this plan and the court uncovered nothing in federal constitutional or statutory law that prohibited such a plan.335

In June 1988, James Blacksher, Terry Davis, Brother Julius Chambers, Lani Guinier, and Larry T. Menefee litigated Harris v. Siegelman before the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama. In this case, African American voters, namely Harris, alleged that they had been treated in a manner that violated the Voting Rights Act of 1965. There were two violations that they claimed, the first being that they had been racially discriminated against at polling places across Alabama, and the second was that the manner in which poll officials had been appointed across Alabama violated this Act. A violation of § 2 of the Voting Rights Act occurred when official action was taken or maintained with a racially discriminatory “intent” or the action has racially discriminatory “results.” The evidence provided by Harris included a white‐supremacist “redemption” period in which the white‐supremacist Democratic Party only appointed white officials and used outright intimidation and fraud by poll officials to control the African American vote. The state actually had policies of appointing only white poll officials and keeping the electoral process closed to African American citizens. Another racial bias shown in the Sayre Law was as follows: (a) requiring that a voter seeking assistance swear an oath to the inspectors that he or she is unable to write the English language; and (b) limiting to five minutes the time that a voter may remain inside the voting booth. For these reasons, the court found that the plaintiffs had established violations of § 2.336

In February and October 1988, Brother Julius Chambers litigated Patterson v. McLean Credit Union before the United States Supreme Court. This case involved an African American woman named Brenda Patterson who was employed at a Credit Union until she was terminated. Patterson contended that, because of her race, she was never promoted and was ultimately terminated. This case was initially argued in February of 1988, but was reargued in October of the same year because the jury returned a verdict in favor of the employer before the employee appealed. The case went to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court held that: (1) §1981 includes a portion about racial discrimination in enforcing private contracts; (2) § 1981 only covers conduct at the initial formation of the contract and not racial discrimination in the course of employment; and (3) the employee was not required to show that she was better qualified than the person chosen for the position to establish that the credit union’s claim to have promoted a better qualified applicant was pretextual. The jury ruled in favor of the credit union on this claim. For the discriminatory discharge claim, they ruled in favor of the credit union once again and the court of appeals affirmed this.337

In 1989, Brother William H. Brown, III, re‐litigated Patterson v. McLean Credit Union before the United States Supreme Court. Here, an African American former employee of a credit union brought a § 1981 suit against the employer claiming racial harassment, failure to promote, and racially driven discharge. The Supreme Court held racial harassment in the course of employment is not actionable under § 1981, which applies only to conduct at initial formation of contract and conduct which impairs right to enforce contractual obligations through legal process.338

In May 1988, Brother Donald Watkins and Norman Chachkin litigated Stout v. Jefferson County Board of Education before the Eleventh Circuit Court. This case had its origins in 1965, when there was action to desegregate the schools of Jefferson County, Alabama which ended in a plan to assign African American students to attend school in the County. After the Dolomite community joined Birmingham, the Jefferson County Board of Education told parents living in annexed Dolomite that their children would not be admitted without paying a fee of $450. Stout filed a motion for a temporary restraining order and a motion for further relief against the Board. The district court declined to grant relief because, even though the Birmingham schools to which Stout was assigned are attended mostly by African American students, the school system had been declared unitary. The district court’s decision was affirmed.339

In September 1988, James Blacksher, Oscar Adams, Elaine  Jones, Brother Julius Chambers, Pamela Karlan, and Eric Schnapper litigated Larkin v. Pullman‐Standard Division before the Eleventh Circuit Court. This case began in 1971 when Larkin and another plaintiff alleged that Pullman‐Standard, Inc. was engaging in racially discriminatory practices that violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Eleventh Circuit affirmed the district court’s decision to deny Larkin’s motion to amend. The appeals court also affirmed the district court’s decision in Pullman‐Standard’s appeal because Larkin proved that the criteria for selecting supervisors was discriminatory. The court affirmed that the seniority system was not discriminatory, however, it found that Pullman could in fact be held responsible for discrimination before July 17, 1969.340

In 1988, Brother William H. Brown, III, litigated Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. United Parcel Service before the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit. The EEOC filed an employment discrimination action on behalf of African American males challenging their employer’s allegedly discriminatory “no beard” policy. The District Court for the District of Colorado had rendered a judgment in favor of the employer, deciding that the EEOC lacked standing. However, the Tenth Circuit held that the EEOC had standing on its own—even though the named plaintiff had settled—to challenge an ongoing practice, and the named plaintiff’s settlement did not render moot the EEOC’s action. The judgment was reversed.341

In 1989, at General President Ponder’s inaugural gala, he stated that Alphas must be “at the forefront of leadership in black America.”342 President Ponder presented a four‐point plan for his presidency—he aimed to restructure conventions to ensure that they addressed the concerns of members, to continue the Risk Management Program against hazing, build a new office facility, and work towards better coordination among members.343 At the Eighty‐third Anniversary General Convention in 1989, President Ponder addressed aging membership, hazing issues, and contemplated a direct billing program for dues.344 The chapter delegates elected to reinstate the “Go‐to‐High‐ School, Go‐to‐College” campaign as a part of the Fraternity’s national program, making it a mandatory community service program for every chapter.345 The convention also brought in almost $5,000 for the W. E.

B. Dubois Foundation, which was the convention’s designated charity that year.346 After the convention, the Fraternity learned about the hazing death of Joel Harris, a student at Morehouse College.347 After the incident, President Ponder issued an executive order limiting pledge activities to two weeks and asking each alumni chapter to closely supervise pledge activities.348

As the Cold War was coming to a close, the Fraternity’s public policy agenda contemplated the “peace dividend” between the United States and the Soviet Union.349 When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, the Fraternity recommended that funds used during the Cold War be redistributed to rebuilding American cities and efforts in Africa.350 At the time, members of Alpha Phi Alpha recognized the critical nature of the Cold War transition period and concluded the 1989 agenda with  the following:

“Today, African Americans stand at an evolutionary crossroad: they can consolidate their gains and build on them for the future or they can succumb to the destructive forces of illiteracy, crime, drug abuse, self‐ hatred, and moral disintegration. Reasoned action is required to build the future, time alone will destroy the gains of the past.”351

Psi Chapter (University of Pennsylvania) hosted its first ever Black Business Expose in 1989. The event invited more than fifty African American businesses from Philadelphia to campus to meet with students and raise awareness for the many black establishments in the area.352 Nu Mu Chapter (Georgia Tech) sponsored the Cub Scout pack at Fowler Street Elementary School. With the brothers’ help, the scouts were able to raise enough money to obtain an official charter and buy the troop matching uniforms. The Fraternity also held a fundraiser for the Leukemia Society through the Pizza Hut Hoops Program.353 Xi Rho Chapter (San Francisco State University) sponsored several different projects in 1989. One was an afterschool tutoring program for all grades in October followed by donation of Thanksgiving dinners to seven of the families in the program in November. The brothers also gathered signatures for petitions that supported affirmative action and the integration of the San Francisco Fire Department.354

Mu Xi Lambda Chapter (Riverside, California) sponsored a Bowl‐a‐Thon in 1989 to benefit the Sickle Cell Organization of the Inland Counties, raising $1,500 over the course of the event.355 Delta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Cincinnati, Ohio) sponsored a number of community service programs in 1989. They hosted their second Project Alpha retreat, working with sixty‐five young men in a two‐day program with many workshops, discussions, and social events. The chapter also held a canned good drive that collected enough cans of food to give thirty‐seven families bags of Christmas groceries. Additionally, the brothers sponsored a Hawaiian luau gala dinner dance that brought in

$2,000 for its scholarship fund.356 Illinois graduate chapter Mu Mu Lambda awarded over $8,000 in scholarships to college‐bound students in 1989. Since the chapter’s founding in 1976, its scholarship fund had already given more than $50,000 in college scholarships.357 Gamma Omicron Lambda Chapter (Albany, Georgia) implemented an adult literacy program in 1988, for which several members of the chapter received training to serve as reading tutors for adults.358 The brothers also cosponsored a career day workshop that hosted 105 high schoolers to meet with black professionals and explore different possible career paths.359

Brother Dr. Louis W. Sullivan was appointed by President Bush as the Secretary of the United States Department of Health and Human Services in 1989. With control over $27 billion and spending an average of $1.1 million a day, the Health and Human Services Department was the largest federal agency when Dr. Sullivan took the position on the President’s cabinet. On the top of Sullivan’s agenda was implementing the welfare reform legislation that was passed by Congress the previous year.360

In January 1989, Arthur Benson, James Liebman, Theodore Shaw, James Nabrit, III (Omega Psi Phi), and Brother Julius Chambers litigated Naylor v. Lee’s Summit Reorganized School District before the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri. Naylor claimed that the school district denied admission to their school because they were not residents, and that this violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The students attempted to enroll in the defendant schools because of the ruling of the previous case. In order to show that they were discriminated against, Naylor had to show that the suburban school district’s decision could be traced to a racially discriminatory purpose. The court granted the motion for summary judgement for the defendant.361

In April 1989, James Blacksher and Brother Julius Chambers litigated Dillard v. Town of North Johns before the United States  District Court for the Middle District of Alabama. Dillard filed a motion for additional relief charging the Town of North Johns with a violation of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Dillard claimed that the town did this by withholding candidacy requirement information and forms from two African American candidates. Dillard asked to be certified even though they did not submit all of the forms required for their candidacy. The court found that the town did in fact violate the Voting Rights Act and that Dillard was entitled to the relief they sought. The court found this because there was evidence that Mayor Price of North Johns not only did not provide the candidates with the right forms and guidelines, he also refused to give them to the candidates when asked. It would have been acceptable if North Johns had simply forgotten to provide the forms to all candidates or certain candidates regardless of race, but in fact it had not.362

In February 1989, Jay Topkis argued the cause for respondents—along with Brother Julius LeVonne Chambers, Charles Stephen Ralston, Arthur A. Benson, II, Russell E. Lovell, II, and Theodore M. Shaw—in Missouri v. Jenkins on behalf of the petitioners before the Supreme Court. The case stemmed from a 1977 incident in which the Kansas City, Missouri School District sued Missouri on behalf of its students because of segregation. The courts found that Missouri was responsible for the segregated schools. Then, in 1987 and following, the courts ordered salary assistance for the desegregation of schools as well as legal remedy of repairs, magnet schools, educational improvement programs. In 1995, the Supreme Court overturned the district court, ruling that Missouri needed to correct the racial inequality finding.363

In December 1989, P. A. Hollingsworth, L. T. Simes II, Kathleen Bell, Olly Neal, Jr., Don Glover, Penda Hair, Donna Dennis, Brother Julius Chambers, Dayna Cunningham, Sherrilyn Ifill, and Sheila Thomas litigated Jeffers v. Clinton before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas. The Arkansas Board of Apportionment instituted a plan for the General Assembly, which seventeen African American electors, including Jeffers, alleged violated the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, asking to hold the existing arrangements of Senate and House districts unlawful, order a new plan, and place Arkansas under a preclearance procedure. The court found that Jeffers demonstrated a violation of rights under the laws cited. The apportionment plan created five legislative positions representing districts in which a majority of the voting age population was African American. If the apportionment plan was not amended, the district lines made it very difficult to appoint more than six African American legislators out of a total 135. Jeffers proved a violation of the law in all the state except for Pulaski County. The court thus found that no more elections should occur under the 1981 apportionment plan.364

1 James R. Williams, The General President Speaks, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 4.

2 Id. at 12‐14.

3 Alpha Phi Alpha Holds Leadership Conference in Jamaica, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 16.

4 James R. Williams, Report of the General President, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 31.

5 ROBERT L. HARRIS, THE HISTORY OF ALPHA PHI ALPHA: A TRADITION OF LEADERSHIP AND

SERVICE 29 (2014).

6 Id. at 32.

7 A Statement of Public Policy by the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. at its Seventy‐ Fourth Convention: Chicago, Illinois August 1‐7, 1980, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 18.

8 Id.

9 Id.

10 Id. at 19.

11 Id.

12 Id. at 20.

13 Hampton Institute, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 32.

14 C. W. Post, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 33‐34.

15 Townson State U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 34.

16 Cornell U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 36.

17 Bradley U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 37.

18 Northern Illinois U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 37. 19 Livingston College, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 38. 20 Memphis State U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 39. 21 Alabama State, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 41.

22 Duke U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 41.

23 Florida State U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 42.

24 Tennessee, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 45.

25 Southern University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 46. 26 Missouri U – Rolla, THE SPHINX, Summer 1980, at 54. 27 Hampton Institute, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 42.

28 Memphis State U, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 49.

29 Southern Tech, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 52.

30 Id. at 53.

31 Columbia U, THE SPHINX, Winter 1980, at 29.

32 Id.

33 Boston University, THE SPHINX, Winter 1980, at 31.

34 Id.

35 Northwestern U, THE SPHINX, Winter 1980, at 32.

36 Id.

37 Id.

38 Mississippi State U, THE SPHINX, Winter 1980, at 34.

39 Maryland, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 35.

40 Id.

41 Wisconsin, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 38.

42 Id.

43 U of Arizona, THE SPHINX, Spring 1980, at 47.

44 THE SPHINX, Summer 1980, at 47.

45 Id. at 49.

46 Missouri, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 43.

47 Ohio, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 45.

48 California, THE SPHINX, Fall 1980, at 59.

49 Id.

50 Delaware, THE SPHINX, Winter 1980, at 30.

51 Id

52 Id. at 31.

53 Ohio, THE SPHINX, Winter 1980, at 33.

54 Id.

55 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 33.

56 Id. at 44.

57 Id.

58 Id. at 35.

59 Id. at 36.

60 The Public Policy Statement … 1981, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 82.

61 Id. at 83.

62 Id.

63 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 40‐41.

64 Id. at 45.

65 Id.

66 Id. at 43.

67 Id. at 65.

68 THE SPHINX, Winter 1981, at 4, 44.

69 Ozell Sutton, The General President Speaks, THE SPHINX, Spring 1981, at 4.

70 Walter Sullivan, Education Foundation, THE SPHINX, Spring 1981, at 14.

71 Legacy, THE SPHINX, Summer 1981, at 16.

72 Id. at 17.

73 Id.

74 Id. at 18.

75 THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 17‐21.

76 The National Program: Youth Development, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 80.

77 Id.

78 The National Program: Education, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 80‐81.

79 The National Program: Business Encouragement, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 81.

80 The National Program: Social Action, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 81.

81 North Carolina U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1981, at 45. 82 Arizona State U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1981, at 48. 83 Arizona State U, THE SPHINX, Spring 1981, at 50.

84 Brown University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1981, at 31.

85 Virginia Commonwealth U, THE SPHINX, Summer 1981, at 32.

86 Johnson C. Smith U, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 64. 87 North Carolina A&T, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 65. 88 San Diego State, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 74.

89 Tennessee State U, THE SPHINX, Winter 1981, at 39.

90 Maryland, THE SPHINX, Spring 1981, at 36.

91 Arizona, THE SPHINX, Spring 1981, at 47‐48. 92 Illinois, THE SPHINX, Summer 1981, at 34‐35. 93 Georgia, THE SPHINX, Fall 1981, at 64.

94 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 52.

95 Id.

96 The General President Speaks: The New Alpha Thrust, THE SPHINX, Spring 1982, at 4. 97 Child Alert: Fighting the Epidemic of Child Abuse, THE SPHINX, Spring 1982, at 13‐14. 98 THE SPHINX, Spring 1982, at 15.

99 Ozell Sutton, Don’t Get Mad … Get Smart, THE SPHINX, Summer 1982, at 4.

100 Waldo E. Johnson, Jr., Speaking of Programs, THE SPHINX, Fall 1982, at 11.

101 Id.

102 Statement of Public Policy 1982: A Voteless People is a Hopeless People, THE SPHINX, Fall 1982, at 29.

103 Statement of Public Policy 1982: The Big Three – NAACP, Urban League, and UNCF, THE SPHINX, Fall 1982, at 29.

104 Statement of Public Policy 1982: The KKK and Other Race‐Hate Groups, THE SPHINX, Fall 1982, at 29‐30.

105 Statement of Public Policy 1982: Nuclear War, THE SPHINX, Fall 1982, at 30.

106 Statement of Public Policy 1982, supra note 104, at 30‐31.

107 Statement of Public Policy 1982: Federal Regulatory Concerns – Health, THE SPHINX, Fall 1982, at 31.

108 Statement of Public Policy 1982: The Reagan Administrations Lack of Commitment to Civil Rights, THE SPHINX, Fall, 1982, at 31.

109 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 53.

110 Id.

111 Id.

112 Johnson, Jr., supra note 100, at 9, 12.

113 Id. at 12.

114 Maryland, THE SPHINX, Spring 1982, at 59.

115 Howard University, THE SPHINX, Winter 1982, at 42.

116 Id.

117 Purdue University, THE SPHINX, Winter 1982, at 45.

118 Vanderbilt University, THE SPHINX, Winter 1982, at 47.

119 New York, THE SPHINX, Summer 1982, at 48.

120 Florida, THE SPHINX, Winter 1982, at 46.

121 California, THE SPHINX, Winter 1982, at 50.

122 ROBERT L. HARRIS, supra, at 61.

123 Id. at 66.

124 Ozell Sutton, The General President Speaks, THE SPHINX, Spring 1983, at 4.

125 Id. at 4.

126 Waldo E. Johnson, Jr., Speaking of Programs, THE SPHINX, Spring 1983, at 10.

127 Id. at 10.

128 Id. at 9.

129 Id.

130 Id.

131 Members of the Public Policy Committee, Public Policy … 1983: A Political Strategy for 1984, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 35.

132 Id.

133 Id.

134 Id.

135 Members of the Public Policy Committee, Public Policy … 1983: The Civil Rights Commission, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 36.

136 Members of the Public Policy Committee, Public Policy … 1983: Tuition Tax Credits, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 36.

137 Members of the Public Policy Committee, Public Policy … 1983: Youth and Violent Crimes, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 37.

138 Members of the Public Policy Committee, Public Policy … 1983: Fair Housing Legislation, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 37.

139 Members of the Public Policy Committee, Public Policy … 1983: The EPA, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 38.

140 Johnson, Jr., supra note 126, at 9.

141 University of Toldeo, THE SPHINX, Spring 1983, at 36‐37.

142 Purdue University, THE SPHINX, Winter 1983, at 49.

143 New York, THE SPHINX, Spring 1983, at 35.

144 Memphis, THE SPHINX, Spring 1983, at 46.

145 Johnson, Jr., supra note 126, at 8.

146 New Jersey, THE SPHINX, Summer 1983, at 49.

147 Pennsylvania, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 49.

148 Florida, THE SPHINX, Fall 1983, at 58.

149 New Jersey, THE SPHINX, Winter 1983, at 45.

150 Virginia, THE SPHINX, Winter 1983, at 46.

151 Bob Jones Univ. v. United States, 461 U.S. 574 (1983).

152 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 60.

153  Id.

154  Id.

155 Ozell Sutton, Let’s All Take New Leadership in Reversing the Illiteracy Crisis in America!, THE SPHINX, Summer 1984, at 4.

156 Id.

157 Waldo E. Johnson, Speaking of Programs, THE SPHINX, Fall 1984, at 23.

158 Ohio, THE SPHINX, Fall 1984, at 54.

159 Public Policy 1984: Voting, THE SPHINX, Fall 1984, at 34.

160 Public Policy 1984: Business and Economic Development, THE SPHINX, Fall 1984, at 35. 161 Public Policy 1984: Unemployment Among Black Youth, THE SPHINX, Fall 1984, at 35. 162Public Policy 1984: Hunger in America, THE SPHINX, Fall 1984, at 36.

163 Public Policy 1984: Juvenile Crime, THE SPHINX, Fall 1984, at 36.

164 Drake University, THE SPHINX, Spring 1984, at 58.

165 Oklahoma State University, THE SPHINX, Summer 1984, at 55.

166 College Chapter of the Year: Beta Epsilon, 70 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1984, at 9.

167 Id. at 9.

168 Id. at 10.

169 Chapter News, 70 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1984, at 28.

170 Id. at 30.

171 Id. at 39.

172 Id. at 41.

173 Chapter News, 71 THE SPHINX, No. 2, 1985, at 23.

174 Id. at 27.

175 Id. at 28.

176 Johnson, Jr., supra note 126, at 10.

177 Id. at 31.

178 Id. at 39.

179 Alumni Chapter of the Year: Zeta Psi Lambda, 70 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1984, at 8.

180 Id. at 11.

181 Id. at 11.

182 Focus: Gray, 71 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1985, at 14.

183 Gray v. Serruto Builders, Inc., 110 N.J. Super. 297 (N.J. Super. Ct. Ch. Div. 1970).

184 Id. at 14.

185 Uzzell v. Friday, 592 F. Supp. 1502 (M.D.N.C. 1984)

186 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 67.

187 Id. at 68.

188 Id.

189 Id. at 75.

190 Id. at 71.

191 Id.

192 Id. at 72.

193 Id. at 81.

194 Id.

195 Id. at 80.

196 Id. at 85.

197 Alphas on the Move, 71 THE SPHINX, No. 2, 1985, at 20.

198 A Natural Alliance: Alpha Phi Alpha and the Boy Scouts of America, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1986, at 27.

199 Id. at 33.

200 Id. at 32.

201 Chapter News, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1986, at 38.

202 Id. at 28‐29.

203 Id. at 29.

204 Id. at 37.

205 Chapter News, 71 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1985, at 35.

206 Id. at 45.

207 Id. at 49.

208 Id. at 51‐52.

209 Id. at 28.

210 Id. at 29‐30.

211 Id. at 30.

212 Webb v. Cty. Bd. of Educ., 471 U.S. 234 (1985).

213 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 77.

214 Id.

215 Id.

216 Id. at 79.

217 Id. at 79.

218 Id. at 80.

219 80 Years of Leadership and Service, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1986, at 18.

220 Id. at 21.

221 Adrian Wallace: Alumni Brother of the Year, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1986, at 12.

222 News Briefs, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1986, at 7.

223 Chapter News, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1986, at 30.

224 Chapter News, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1987, at 32.

225 Id. at 36.

226 Id. at 37.

227 Id.

228 Beta Beta Lambda, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1987, at 13.

229 Wilber E. Jackson, Jr., Living the Dream: San Jose, California, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1986, at 15.

230 Id. at 41.

231 Id. at 42.

232 Id. at 44.

233 Chapter News, 72 THE SPHINX, No. 2, 1986, at 23.

234 Id. at 35.

235 Id. at 39.

236 Id. at 41.

237 Id. at 54.

238 News Briefs, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1987, at 9.

239 Id. at 9‐10.

240 Id. at 10.

241 Chapter News, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1987, at 37.

242 Id. at 38.

243 Dillard v. Crenshaw Cty., 640 F. Supp. 1347 (M.D. Ala. 1986).

244 Geier v. Alexander, 801 F.2d 799 (6th Cir. 1986).

245 Library of Cong. v. Shaw, 478 U.S. 310 (1986).

246 Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 U.S. 30 (1986).

247 Business by the Bay, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1987, at 29.

248 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 85.

249 Id.

250 Business by the Bay, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1987, at 29.

251 NEA’s Trenholm Award Celebrates the Life of Archie Lacey, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1988, at 27.

252 Gamma Xi Chapter, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1987, at 11.

253 Id. at 12.

254 Id.

255 Chapter News, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1988, at 34.

256 Id. at 37.

257 Id. at 43.

258 Id.

259 Id. at 37.

260 Project Alpha Debuts on West Coast, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1987, at 25.

261 Id. at 42.

262 Id. at 43.

263 Chapter News, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 3, 1987, at 46.

264 Id.

265 Epsilon Lambda Chapter, 73 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1987, at 13.

266 Id. at 14.

267 Id. at 40.

268 Id. at 43.

269 Id. at 44.

270 Id. at 46.

271 Id.

272 Id. at 53.

273 Id. at 41.

274 Id.

275 Id. at 44.

276 Martin v. Allain, 658 F. Supp. 1183 (S.D. Miss. 1987).

277 McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279 (1987).

278 Parents for Quality Educ. With Integration, Inc. v. Fort Wayne Comty. Schs. Corp., 662 F. Supp. 1475, 1477 (N.D. Ind. 1987).

279 Shimkus v. Gersten Cos., 816 F.2d 1318 (9th Cir. 1987).

280 Alpha Award of Merit: Dr. Walter Washington, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1988, at 24.

281 Id.

282 HARRIS, supra note 5, at 100.

283 Id. at 95.

284 GENERAL CONVENTION REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 106 (1990)

285 1988 Public Policy Statement of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc., 74 THE SPHINX, No. 3, 1988, at 42.

286 Id.

287 Id. at 43.

288 Id.

289 News Briefs, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1988, at 6.

290 Id. at 15.

291 Chapter News, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 2, 1988, at 32.

292 Id. at 34.

293 Id. at 35.

294 Chapter News, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 3, 1988, at 51.

295 Id. at 52.

296 Id.

297 Id. at 57.

298 Id. at 60.

299 Id.

300 Id. at 35.

301 Id. at 36.

302 Id. at 42.

303 Chapter News, 75 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1989, at 27.

304 Id. at 33.

305 The 1988 College Chapter of the Year: Eta Gamma, 75 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1989, at 11.

306 Id.

307 News Briefs, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1988, at 13.

308 Id. at 46.

309 News Briefs, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 2, 1988, at 6.

310 Id.

311 Id. at 41.

312 News Briefs, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 3, 1988, at 9.

313 Id. at 11.

314 Id. at 11‐12.

315 Id. at 12.

316 Id. at 56.

317 Id. at 63.

318 Id. at 7.

319 Chapter News, 74 THE SPHINX, No. 4, 1988, at 34.

320 Id. at 44.

321 Id.

322 The 1988 Alumni Chapter of the Year: Zeta Epsilon Lambda, 75 THE SPHINX, No. 1, 1989, at 13.