The 1970s

Alpha Phi Alpha continued its vigilance and turned to new goals in the early 1970s. The Fraternity applied its core values and traditions to new and evolving social challenges. At its national convention in 1970, President Morial stated the elimination of the ghetto as a major goal for the Fraternity.1 President Morial announced this goal again at the 1971 and 1972 General Conventions.2 The Fraternity continued this goal, among others, through the rest of the decade.3 The goal to eliminate the ghetto inspired discussion “in areas of housing, employment, education, crime and law enforcement, health and recreation, and socio‐economic‐political matters.”4

Alpha Phi Alpha became involved in housing projects and developments as a means to achieve changing ghettoes in cities.5 Brother and chairman of the Housing and Building Corporation William M. Alexander noted that housing projects would affect several cities.6 Alpha Phi Alpha Brothers oversaw the completed construction of housing developments in urban St. Louis.7 Brother James R. Williams began another urban housing development in Akron, Ohio.8 Under Brother Williams, the Fraternity developed Alpha Phi Alpha Homes, Incorporated.9 The corporation managed and assisted in the development of affordable housing in urban areas. Elsewhere, Brothers developed additional projects in California, Michigan, Indiana, and Georgia.10

In 1970, Brother Alexander Pierre Tureaud and colleagues litigated the case Williams v. Iberville Parish School Board before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana, Baton Rouge Division. The case involved a demand for school desegregation. As an appellate case in the Court of Appeals, attorneys for the plaintiff Williams requested additional relief, which was denied by the District Court. The Williams sought additional relief because the desegregation plan developed by the Iberville Parish School Board was to be implemented at the start of the next school year rather than immediately.11 Citing Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education (1969) and United States v. Hinds County School Board (1969), among others, the appellate court held that “school districts may no longer operate a dual school system based on race or color,” and that they must “begin immediately to operate a unitary school system within which no person is to be effectively excluded from any school because of race or color.”12

In 1970, Brother John Winfred Walker provided counsel in Haney v. County Board of Education of Sevier County Arkansas. In that case, parents and children sought to enjoin the continued maintenance of a racially segregated system of public education in Sevier County, Arkansas. The Eighth Circuit held that the reorganization of Sevier County’s districts, which were originally segregated under color of state law, continued to reflect a bi‐racial system of education. The court also found that de jure segregation was established, despite claims that there was no intentional gerrymandering for racial reasons, because district lines reflected a discriminatory pattern. The court directed the County Board of Education of Sevier County to effectuate a completely nonracial school system.13

In 1970, Brother John Winfred Walker wrote the brief for appellant McKisick in McKisick v. Forrest City Special School District No. 7. In that case, the Eighth Circuit affirmed the lower court’s order requiring immediate implementation of a school desegregation plan and the retention of jurisdiction to ensure such integration.14 Also in 1970, Brother Walker litigated Clark v. Board of Education of the Little Rock School District. In that case, the Eighth Circuit considered whether the efforts of the Board of Education of the Little Rock [Arkansas] School District to desegregate its schools satisfied the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as interpreted in Brown v. Board of Education.15 Later that year, he represented the appellants in Willingham v. Pine Bluff Arkansas School District. There, the Eighth Circuit ensured the school district’s timely integration.16 Brother Walker also represented the appellants in Kemp v. Beasley. In Kemp, the Eighth Circuit held that the school district’s desegregation plan was inadequate because four schools continued to be racially identifiable and completely African American. The court remanded with instructions to eliminate the last vestiges of racial segregation in the district.17

In 1970, Brother Alexander Pierre Tureaud and colleagues litigated the case Jones v. Caddo Parish School Board before the Fifth Circuit Court. When Beryl N. Jones sued the Caddo Parish School Board on the basis of school segregation, the district court approved a desegregation plan for the School Board to follow and Jones appealed. Upon review in the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, the Court ruled that the School Board’s freedom of choice plan was not effective in desegregating schools, just as in Hall v. St. Helena Parish School Board. Finally, the Court ordered the Caddo Parish School Board to submit a desegregation plan to provide a unitary school system and to take the preparative measures to implement such plan by February 1, 1970, in accordance to the Supreme Court in Carter v. West Feliciana Parish School Board.18

In 1970, Brother Ernest A. Finney, Jr. and colleagues litigated Stanley v. Darlington County School District before the Fourth Circuit Court. The appellees wished to postpone immediate implementation of integration requiring immediate reassignment of pupils and teachers in mid‐year. The Court of Appeals held that the Supreme Court decision involving integration of school districts left the Court of Appeals with no discretion to consider delays in pupil integration until September 1970, and that immediate implementation of constitutional principles announced by the Supreme Court was required, even though such implementation would occasion disruption by immediate reassignment of teachers and pupils in mid‐year. The judgments were vacated and the cases were remanded.19

In 1970, Brother Alexander Pierre Tureaud, William Bennett Turner, Jack Greenberg, and Edwin O. Ware litigated the case Valley v. Rapides Parish School Board before the Fifth Circuit Court. When Virigie Lee Valley sued the Rapides Parish School Board on the basis of school segregation, the United States District Court of Louisiana ordered the School Board to adopt a desegregation plan. When Valley appealed, the Appellate Court found that the desegregation plan did not “establish a racially unitary school system.”20 The United States Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals remanded the case for compliance with the decision in Singleton v. Jackson Municipal Separate School District, and the order of the Supreme Court in Carter v. West Feliciana Parish School Board. Further, the court also ordered the Rapides Parish School Board to comply with the teacher ratio established in Singleton immediately.21

The 1971 General Convention approved of the establishment of the Equitable Employment Bank, which assisted minority professionals in obtaining jobs, in the National Office.22 Brothers Paul McGuire and J. Russell Elliot remained as sponsors and directors of the employment bank.23 The Alpha Phi Alpha Education Foundation awarded a number of scholarships, including one for student Mr. Kossuth Synder, who received the Alpha Phi Alpha Memorial Scholarship at Cornell University for the fourth consecutive year, a scholarship that amounts to about $2,400 every year.24 A student from Beaumont, Texas received the third annual Coca‐Cola Alpha Phi Alpha Scholarship of $1500 to attend Harvard, and three college‐aged brothers were awarded the Alpha Phi Alpha Undergraduate Scholarships of $1000.25 Further Education Foundation news included the announcement that it would present five $1000 scholarships to college brothers in the five different regions in order to support their tuition and book costs.26 As a culmination of the year and reminder to the Fraternity as a whole, in the December of 1971 issue of The Sphinx, General President Ernest N. Morial informed readers that April had been declared “Alpha Outreach and Education for Citizenship Month.”27 He encouraged chapters to develop programs during April that would address their local communities’ needs and to send any information of such programs to the publicity director so that he could then submit news of them to the media.28

This reminder of service was upheld by many college chapters, including Zeta Delta Chapter (Northern Michigan University) which had established a $250 scholarship for “needy” African American students.29 Additionally, Epsilon Delta Lambda Chapter (Talladega, Alabama) gave an annual $200 scholarship to college‐aged brothers in addition to making a contribution to the N.A.A.C.P. Legal and Education Fund every year.30 Gamma Omicron Chapter (Knoxville College) held a raffle to raise money for a scholarship that would be given to a deserving student. Additionally, this chapter was planning to develop a Big Brother Program for children of nearby ghetto areas.31 This educational service was continued with a project sponsored by the Educational Entertainment Committee of the Beta Kappa Chapter (Langston University), brining four brothers and two Alpha Angels to elementary schools once a week to teach students about black history.32 Nu Chapter (Lincoln University) also sponsored tutoring and black history programs for children of low‐income families in the Lincoln Village area after several years of inactivity. The chapter also created an adult education program with the help of the Oxford Area School District in which brothers taught classes in English, math, science, penmanship, and black history.33 Other community service efforts included the brothers from Epsilon Epsilon Chapter’s (Oklahoma State University) Halloween party for children, renovations of the Family Community Cooperative Association building, and participation in the Toilet Bowl, an on‐campus touch football game between brothers of black fraternities to raise money for canned goods distributed throughout the community on Thanksgiving.34

With many service projects aimed to educate the community  on African American history and race relations, alumni chapters held events dedicated to this cause as well. At Theta Rho Lambda Chapter’s (Arlington, Virginia) seventh annual Black and Gold banquet in Virginia had a theme of “The Implementation of Social Consciousness” and featured a speech by Brother Harold R. Sims on a “humane, massive, non‐partisan program to end poverty, racial tensions, and urban and rural decay.”35

These alumni chapters also contributed to the funding efforts aimed at extending assistance from the Fraternity. Alpha Phi Alpha Homes, Inc. and Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) conducted  the ground‐breaking ceremonies for a new housing development in Akron called Channelwood on October 30, 1971. The corporation was able to secure a commitment from Federal Housing to build the 551 unit, $10 million development.36 Additionally, 31% of the people its construction employed were minorities.37

In support of tutoring programs begun by college chapters, as well as encouragement from the General President, Epsilon Omicron Lambda Chapter (Lawrenceville, Virginia) held a dinner to honor senior male students with a B or above average from Southside Virginia High Schools to recognize young men in the area who strived for academic excellence.38 With similar intentions, Eta Pi Lambda Chapter (Pasadena‐Altadena area) awarded three $100 scholarships to graduating seniors.39 Eta Eta Lambda Chapter (Annapolis, Maryland) started a new program called Operation K.A.F.T. (Keeping A Family Together) to “adopt” a family and support them with $500 a year and tutoring services. Alpha Tau Lambda Chapter (Tulsa, Oklahoma) held sweetheart dances to raise money for scholarships given to graduating seniors.40 With the help of Brother Otis Cargill, Delta Gamma Lambda Alumni Chapter (Cincinnati, Ohio) was able to restore its local scholarship program and support several college‐bound men,41 and Beta Beta Lambda Chapter (Miami, Florida) gave an annual “scholarship‐grant‐loan” of about $2,000 to a college‐aged student.42

Acting at a local level, Zeta Iota Lambda Chapter (Trenton, New Jersey) brought a bus full of area high school students to see Delaware State College to encourage “educational awareness.”43 Additionally, the Alpha Outreach Program of Zeta Zeta Lambda Chapter was able to address the academic needs and weaknesses of eight young students in the local St. Albans area and significantly improve their performance in school.44

Many individual accomplishments of the Fraternity included newly established political positions by brothers. Mayor of Chicago Richard J. Daley named Ralph H. Metcalfe, an Illinois congressman, and John H. Stroger, a lawyer and member on the Cook County Board of Commissioners, to the Democratic Party’s slate‐making committee.45 Brother Sammie Chess, Jr. was appointed to North Carolina’s Superior Court by Governor Robert Scott, making him the first black man to hold this position in North Carolina’s history.46 In the November elections, John Ford won a seat on the Memphis City Council, Brother Murphy was re‐elected as a state representative, Brother Harold Ford was elected state representative, and Brother Patterson—already a state senator—was re‐elected to a council seat. Additionally, Brothers Brown and Johnson both earned seats on the Memphis School Board.47 Brother and California Congressman Ronald Dellums spoke to an audience in a Milwaukee church about the need for more poor and African Americans to take roles in politics.48

Additionally, members focused on civil and social reforms in their communities. Acting from his significant political position, United States Representative from Illinois Brother Ralph H. Metcalfe spoke at one of AT&T’s monthly luncheons for management personnel, urging the company to make efforts to assist minority and poor communities whenever it can.49 Brother Walter Washington, then president of Alcorn A&M College, worked to have the Mississippi Legislature allot $12 million for capital outlay at the school.50 Brother William H. Brown, III, the chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, presided over three days of hearings on discriminatory practices in the public utility industry.51

In 1971, Alexander Pierre Tureaud and Frank D. Allen litigated the case Boyd v. Pointe Coupee Parish School Board before the Fifth Circuit Court. Yvonne Marie Boyd sued the Pointe Coupee Parish School Board on the basis of school segregation and discrimination. On July 25, 1969, the Court ruled for the establishment of a desegregation plan for the school system. Upon its implementation, all students in  the Pointe Coupee Parish School system were assigned to school on a racially non‐discriminatory basis. As a result of these assignments, some 1800 or more students left the public school system to attend private school, which is, of course, within legal rights. The United States Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the resulting segregation was purely “de facto” in nature, and that it would be useless to continue re‐shuffling the student population in order to achieve a more equal ratio of black and white students. The Court concluded that the Pointe Coupee Parish School Board was now a unitary, non‐ discriminatory school system within the meaning and intent of federal law and denied the supplemental relief sought by the plaintiff.52

In 1971, Brother Julius LeVonne Chambers litigated Swann v. Charlotte‐Mecklenburg Board of Education before the Supreme Court. Following Brown v. Board of Education, Charlotte consolidated school districts from the city itself. The majority of African American students in central Charlotte still attended mostly African American schools as compared with majority white schools further outside the city. Swann, the parents of a six‐year‐old child, sued the Charlotte‐Mecklenburg school district to allow his son to attend Seversville Elementary School, the school closest to their home that was integrated. The District Court ruled in favor of the Swanns and oversaw the implementation of a busing strategy that integrated the district’s schools. Pursuant to the order of the District Court, the school board adopted a desegregation plan for elementary schools that included grouping two or three outlying schools with one inner‐city African American school and transporting African American children to the white schools and white children to the African American schools. This decision was appealed to the United States Supreme Court, which upheld it. The Supreme Court held that once violations of previous mandates directed at desegregating schools had occurred, the scope of the district courts’ equitable powers to remedy past wrongs were broad and flexible. The Supreme Court ruled that: (1) remedial plans were to be judged by their effectiveness, and the use of mathematical ratios or quotas were legitimate “starting point[s]” for solutions; (2) predominantly or exclusively black schools required close scrutiny by courts; (3) non‐ contiguous attendance zones, as interim corrective measures, were within the courts’ remedial powers; and (4) no rigid guidelines could be established concerning busing of students to particular schools.53

In 1971, Brother Alexander Pierre Tureaud litigated the case Gordon v. Jefferson Davis Parish School Board before the Fifth Circuit Court. Gordon and other plaintiffs sued the Jefferson Davis Parish School Board on the basis of school segregation and discrimination. The United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana approved the desegregation plan. The District Court entered further orders approving the desegregation plan, and the plaintiffs appealed.

The appellate court reversed. According to the United States Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, the district court failed to make full findings of fact and conclusions of law with regard to the issue on appeal: whether racially‐motivated closings of all‐African American schools were constitutionally permissible. The United States Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals established the following ruling: the judgment appealed from is ordered vacated due to the District Court’s inability to conduct proper hearings, and thereon make findings and conclusions as to whether or not the closing of schools was racially motivated. The ruling was based on Swann v. Charlotte‐Mecklenburg Board of Education.54

In 1971, Brother Alexander Pierre Tureaud, along with Marion Overton White, Jack Greenberg, Margarett Ford, Norman J. Chachkin, Jerris Leonard, represented appellants in Monteilh v. St. Landry Parish School Board, regarding school segregation and discrimination, before the United States Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. The Court vacated the district court’s judgment and ordered the implementation of a student assignment plan that complied with the principles established in  Swann v. Charlotte‐Mecklenburg Board of Education. Further, the appellate court ordered the district courts to require semi‐annual reports during the school year similar to those required in United States v. Hinds County School Board.55

In 1971, Brother Louis L. Redding represented the defendant Jackson in Jackson v. Filliben before the Supreme Court of Delaware. Jackson brought this appeal from a verdict and judgment entered in Superior Court in favor of the plaintiff in a defamation action. The plaintiff was going home after finishing his shift when he saw Jackson’s car traveling over the speed limit. When Jackson failed to stop at Filliben’s horn signal, he gave chase, but Jackson stopped only when he was wedged in. Jackson was arrested and taken to police headquarters. Jackson contended that the verdict that was against him was in error, and that there was not sufficient evidence to show actual malice as defined in that case. The judgment was reversed.56

In 1971, Brother William T. Coleman and Dilworth Paxson litigated Mack v. General Electric Company before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. In that case, African American employees, including Mack, brought action against their former employer on behalf of themselves and the class they proposed to represent, sought injunctive relief and damages for alleged racially discriminatory employment policies. The United States District Court held that former employees could maintain a class action against a former employer on behalf of themselves and on behalf of all African Americans employed at a specified plant, those who had been employed there, and/or those who had unsuccessfully sought employment at the plant from a specified day to the present where former employees alleged a permeating policy of racial discrimination on the part of their former employer at the plant. Judge Lord ordered the parties to submit Orders in accordance with his foregoing opinion.57

Brother William T. Coleman continued to litigate Mack v. General Electric Company before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania into 1974. At this point, international and local unions moved to intervene four and one‐half years after commencement of suit and proposed consent decree had been submitted for approval. The District Court, Judge Lord, held that international and local unions were barred from intervening because of the untimeliness of the motion, but that the union would be allowed limited intervention to suggest the necessity for a proviso regarding the consent decree’s effect on collective bargaining, and a clarification of the parties bound by the decree.58

The 1972 General Convention held in Denver, Colorado outlined the vision of the Fraternity. The Committee on Equitable Opportunities Employment held a job recruitment program that brought approximately 100 representatives from over thirty corporations around the country to seek qualified employees.59 The Building Foundation announced its plans for new housing developments in Dayton and Detroit.60 The Committee on Public Policy presented the Fraternity’s public policy statement, calling on the federal government to develop more realistic guidelines and more adequate medical services in programs for the poor. The statement also expressed desires to end the war in Vietnam, equal opportunities for African Americans in the armed forces, a breaking of diplomatic relations with South Africa, statehood for Washington, D.C., and less discrimination in the news media.61

In efforts of civilian activism for college chapters, Alpha Phi Alpha supported a number of brothers and successful Supreme Court cases that fought discriminatory policies leading up to 1972. One such case was that of Brother Lloyd L. Gaines who was denied admission to the University of Missouri, and another was the “Sweatt Case” that challenged the principle of separate but equal. The Fraternity also took the “Henderson Case” to the Supreme Court to fight discrimination on trains and their dining cars.62 Omicron Lambda Chapter (Birmingham, Alabama) successfully brought a case to the state supreme court to strike down Jim Crow zoning laws in the city of Huntsville.63 Additionally, Brothers from Gamma Upsilon Chapter of Mississippi worked on establishing a sickle cell testing center in Mississippi.64 Alpha Psi Chapter and Beta Zeta Lambda Chapter of Lincoln University of Missouri also sponsored a sickle cell testing program that tested over 200 people in Jefferson City. The tests were free of charge and administered by brothers who were lab technicians at a Memorial Hospital.65 Health causes were championed by the chapter at Clark College in Atlanta, who held an annual blood drive on campus, earning recognition from the Atlanta Red Cross Blood Center and several administrators at the school.66 Alpha Zeta Chapter (West Virginia College) went door to door raising money for the Muscular Dystrophy Campaign as a contribution to health concerns in their area.

Regarding community outreach, the Alpha Phi Alpha Building Foundation began efforts to introduce a low and middle income housing development in Los Angeles that could be used by graduate and college brothers. The foundation also established a group in Fresno, California charged with developing another low income development there.67 Beta Mu Chapter (Kentucky State University) also played a role in their neighborhood, holding a Halloween party for neighborhood children along with a “Can Dance” to provide Thanksgiving baskets of food to families in need.68 Eta Rho Chapter (Western Kentucky University) donated financial aid money to the United Black Students for several community service projects, and the Alpha Angels threw a Christmas party to distribute toys to Head Start children from the Bowling Green area.69 This focus on the youth of the community was continued by Beta Alpha Chapter (Morgan State College), who contributed to a Christmas “Toys of Tots” program along with assisting in a “Drug Workshop.”

With efforts to improve educational opportunities and systems, Epsilon Theta Chapter (Bowling Green State University) established a scholarship fund using money brought in from annual social functions.70 This chapter won the “Most Outstanding College Chapter in the Midwest” award.71 To improve community relations, Alpha Tau Chapter (University of Akron) continued its Little‐Brother‐Big‐Brother program that consisted of organizing several activities with underprivileged grade school boys from the area, such as a Christmas party and trips to the library and athletic events.72 Alpha Zeta Chapter (West Virginia State College) implemented a tutoring program for struggling college students and planned to extend their tutoring services to students at the local Shawnee Elementary School.73

Alumni chapters were dedicated to continuing the educational opportunities provided to them. Gamma Mu Lambda Chapter (Tallahassee, Florida) gave four scholarships of $250 to students at Florida A&M University, including the “Most Well‐Rounded Non‐Alpha Male Upper Classman,” “Highest Average Male Freshman,” “Alpha Man of the Year,” and “Highest Neophyte of Beta Nu Chapter” scholarships.74 Theta Rho Lambda held a Black and Gold Banquet Ball in 1972 to benefit its Ronda A. Gilliam Memorial Scholarship Fund. The theme of the banquet was “Economic Development: A Challenge for the Seventies.”75

Theta Omicron Lambda Chapter contributed to the social well‐ being of their community by holding the groundbreaking ceremonies for a new $1.6 million housing development in Goldsboro, North Carolina.76 As an effort to increase youth relations, the Omicron Lambda Chapter (Birmingham, Alabama) dressed a brother up as Santa Claus to give out gifts and candy to students with mental disabilities at the Jackson School of Hope, a program they had also carried out in previous years.77 Keeping with the Sixty‐Sixth Annual Convention’s theme of “the elimination of the ghetto,” the Birmingham chapter also made and gave out food baskets to the needy around Thanksgiving.78 Additionally, Alpha Eta Lambda Chapter (Prairie View, Texas) along with the Texas Southern University and the University of Houston chapters established an Alpha Merit Group, which consisted of African American senior boys from high schools around Houston.79

As a model for community outreach in alumni chapters, Kappa Lambda Chapter (Greensboro, North Carolina) initiated its Alpha Outreach Project, sponsored four softball teams, and provided tutoring services to disadvantaged students with special needs.80 Additionally, Walter Sullivan of Kappa Lambda was director of the Minority Schools Biomedical Support Program, a program funded by $427,000 from the National Institute of Health and designed to create a larger pool of skilled and capable biomedicine students.81 Efforts of Alpha Rho Lambda Chapter (Columbus, Ohio) included the sponsorship of a new housing development in the inner city and meeting with Congressman Sam Devine to discuss how to fight the drug problem in Columbus. The new housing development was planned to have 150 units in a high rise for senior citizens.82 Modeling these caring values, Iota Tau Lambda Chapter (Charlotte Court House, Virginia) continually distributed baskets and cash donations to the needy living in Buckingham, Charlotte, and Prince Edward Counties.83

The Fraternity remembered individual brothers who contributed significantly to the efforts of their chapters. Brother Alexander Pierre Tureaud, Sr. passed away at the age of seventy‐two,84 leaving behind an impressive career in civil rights law, including prosecuting police brutality cases with the N.A.A.C.P.85 Brother Adam Powell also exemplified civil rights activism, leading picketing, boycotts, and sit‐ins to force many Harlem businesses to employ African Americans.86

Additionally, the Fraternity recognized many brothers taking steps in the political community. From the Omicron Lambda Chapter (Birmingham, Alabama), Dr. Richard Huntington, Jr. was elected to the City Council, Peter Hall was appointed as Birmingham’s first African American judge in a judicial chamber, and Brother Jordan received an appointment to the city’s Park and Recreation Board.87 William A. Clement, III, an Alpha Phi Alpha brother and civil rights leader in Durham was named Second Vice Chairman in charge of the state’s Democratic Party’s minority affairs, tasked with getting more minority people involved in politics.88 A milestone for the Fraternity, Brother Andrew Young from Atlanta became the first African American in 100 years to be elected to Congress in the South.89 Other notable appointments included Brother David Dinkins becoming president of the New York City Board of Elections90 and Brother Alphonse Jackson becoming the first African American man in the Louisiana State Legislature since Reconstruction. Other developments included Thomas Reed, the first African American person elected to the  Alabama State Legislature, who was honored for successfully introducing legislation that increased the salaries of the White Capitol Guard Force.91 Brother C. Sumner Stone resigned as director of the Educational Testing Service because he believed the tests that the organization created could not accurately predict how well minority students would perform in employment and academic environments.92

To commend contributions to civil development, Brother Ned E. Felder was one of the five winners of the Younger Federal Lawyer Awards.93 Brother David Austin served as executive director of the Stamford  Day  Care  Program  in  Connecticut, a program originally funded with a grant in 1969 by the Department of Community Affairs that grew to consist of ten different centers.94 Civil activism was an important value for the Fraternity, upheld by past General President A. Maceo Smith who confronted Dallas city councilmen about the pattern of police shooting and killing African Americans.95 President of Unity Broadcasting Network Brother Eugene Jackson announced that the first radio news network owned and operated by African Americans would go on air by July 1, 1973.96

In 1972, Brother Alexander Pierre Tureaud, along with Lionel R. Collins, and Marcel Trudeau, Jr., represented plaintiffs‐appellees in Dandridge v. Jefferson Parish School Board before the Fifth Circuit Court. When Lena Vern Dandridge sued the Jefferson Parish School Board on the basis of school segregation, the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana ordered implementation of a desegregation plan, and the school board appealed. The Court of Appeals, with Circuit Judge Gewin, held that no abuse of discretion concerning desegregation was shown with respect to adoption of the desegregation plan involving busing 3,000 students over an average round trip of approximately seven miles. This ruling was based on the precedent case of Swann v. Charlotte‐Mecklenburg Board of Education, which made clear that busing was an available tool for use by district courts in achieving school desegregation. In addition, the Swann case also established the burden on school authorities to show that one race schools are “genuinely non‐discriminatory,” which the Jefferson Parrish School Board failed to prove.97

In 1972, Brother Louis L. Redding and Angelo Falasca, representing the defendant, won the State v. Johnson case before the Supreme Court of Delaware. Carla Johnson, the appellant’s wife, testified that she had known the appellant for seven years and had been married to him for three years. She and Johnson had one child. On Christmas evening, Mrs. Johnson, the appellant, and their son went to the appellant’s mother’s house for dinner. Mrs. Johnson testified that she did not recall the appellant partaking in alcoholic beverages or drugs. Johnson later in the night stated that he would call Ronald Regan, if he wanted to. His wife told him that he would probably be put on a list as a potential threat, and Johnson responded that he was a potential threat. Johnson got angry and stabbed his wife, who ran away, but their child was stabbed and decapitated. Police arrested Johnson and transported him to Baltimore County General Hospital. He appeared coherent, although PCP was found in his urine. The court sentenced Johnson to life imprisonment, with all but fifty years suspended for the murder and shorter sentences for the assault and drug convictions.98

In 1972, Brothers Ernest A. Finney, Jr., Julius leVonne Chambers, and Robert Belton, along with Jonathan P. Wallas, Jack Greenberg, and William Robinson, litigated Ellison v. Rock Hill Printing & Finishing Company before the United States District Court for the District of South Carolina, Rock Hill Division. This case was an action against an international union and others, with the allegation of employment discrimination against African Americans and discrimination based on sex. It was filed pursuant to Title VII of The Civil Rights Act of 1964. The international union filed a motion to dismiss for want of venue and for want of sufficient service. District Judge Hemphill held that the defendant, who had headquarters in Washington, D.C., was a party to a contract to supply services in South Carolina and was transacting business in South Carolina. The international union also had a contract with the local union, whereby they provided assistance in contract negotiations and in the process of grievance. The motion was denied.99

In 1972, Brother William T. Coleman litigated United States of America v. Philadelphia Electric Company before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.100 In that case, the United States sued Philadelphia Electric Company alleging a pattern and practice of unlawful employment discrimination. On motion to dismiss or, alternatively, for summary judgment, the District Court, held inter alia, that to apply the doctrine of “unclean hands” to a suit alleging employment discrimination under the Civil Rights Act would both frustrate the purpose of the Act and thwart public policy, and consequently such doctrine would not be a bar to such a suit. On motion to dismiss, the defendant contended that the court lacked subject matter jurisdiction. Furthermore, the defendant claimed that the suit was premature and should be dismissed because there was no attempt by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)  to conciliate the matter that formed the basis of the suit prior to its referral to the Attorney General. Additionally, the matters present in this case had previously been made the subject of proceedings before the Philadelphia Human Relations Commission, acting as an agent of the United States, and an agreement settling such matters had been entered into by that Commission and the Company. Finally, the defendant contended that the United States should not be permitted to maintain an action in equity because it was guilty of unclean hands.

However, based on the following, the court found that the company’s motion was without sufficient merit to warrant the granting of the relief sought. First, the Attorney General has the right to bring a civil action against a respondent “whenever the Attorney General has reasonable cause to believe that any person or group of persons is engaged in a pattern or practice of resistance to the full enjoyment of any of the rights” and that there is no conciliation requirement.101 In this case, the Attorney General brought action following the referral of charges from the EEOC. In regards to the Clean Hands Doctrine, the Company claimed that the Government came before the Court seeking equitable relief, with unclean hands. However, as stated earlier, the principles of equity will not be applied in a suit by the United States to frustrate the purpose of its laws or thwart public policy citing Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company v. United States. For these reasons, the court denied the defendant’s motion.

With a focus on improving education at all levels, the Fraternity’s 1973 Eastern Regional Convention held in New York City featured a Career Planning and Job Opportunities Program, offering a job fair and opportunities to interview with visiting corporations to senior college students and recent graduates.102 The convention’s job fair resulted in over 600 young African Americans receiving job offers.103 To pursue these academic goals, the Fraternity’s Education Foundation announced its goal to raise $1 million in five years.104 The foundation asked every undergraduate brother to donate ten dollars and every graduate brother to donate $100 with plans to make an endowment for a scholarship and fellowship fund.105

Alpha Phi Alpha initiated a counseling program for Oakland public high schools called A Black Counseling Program and discussed implementing the counseling program in San Jose and Stockton.106 They also announced its new fundraising campaign to raise $1 million in five years.107 Additionally, Nu Chapter (Lincoln University) established the Paul Robeson Scholarship Fund and the Amilcar Cabral Memorial Book Award to be given every year to deserving university students, to assist them in buying textbooks and supplies.108

The chapters also focused on youth engagement, the brothers  of Epsilon Tau Chapter (University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee) tutored students at inner‐city schools under its Education Outreach Program, Zeta Iota Chapter (Wisconsin State University) met with inmates at the Boys School in Wales every Tuesday night to help them develop a healthier “self‐concept,” and Eta Beta Chapter (Ferris State College) creating a program called Project Overdue to work with troubled youth in the community.109

In regards to civil outreach, Epsilon Iota Lambda Chapter (Franklin, Virginia) financially assisted and participated in Project‐ Homecoming for Colonel Frederick Vann Cherry, a repatriated prisoner of war from Suffolk.110 Gamma Mu Chapter (Livingston College) participated in a fundraising event for sickle cell anemia and visited the Veterans Administration Hospital to put on entertainment for patients.111 Eta Omicron Chapter (North Carolina State University) created a breakfast program at an elementary school, sent letters to  sick students, conducted a car wash fundraiser for sickle cell anemia, and produced a Big Brother Program for underprivileged kids in the area.112 Similarly, Gamma Upsilon (Tougaloo College) “adopted” a family from the surrounding community, buying and distributing groceries to the family over the Christmas holidays113

In efforts to improve community education, Eta Tau Lambda Chapter’s (Akron, Ohio) service resulted in a book circulation increase of 20% at the local Wooster Branch Library.114 Theta Zeta Lambda Chapter (Ann Arbor, Michigan) was involved in a Big Brother Program, voter registration drives, and obtained information from local schools and universities to assist minorities in getting funds for educational purposes.115 In other educational work, Epsilon Gamma Lambda Chapter (Boston, Massachusetts) hosted a two‐day employment seminar with the minority‐owned employment agency Mack Hackett Associates, bringing together students from twenty‐one colleges with northeastern companies looking to hire, and Xi Lambda Chapter (Chicago, Illinois) held a Career Counselling Day.116 To raise educational dollars, Zeta Epsilon Lambda Chapter (Red Bank, New Jersey) held a dance that brought in almost $2,000 for the Dr. James W. Parker, Sr. Memorial Scholarship Fund.117 Alpha Delta Lambda Chapter’s (Memphis, Tennessee) Community Involvement Committee raised almost $2,000 ringing bells at the “Alpha Goodfellows Booth” for a number of Alpha scholarships and contributions to the Boys Club of America.118 To award scholarships to many high schoolers, Delta Gamma Lambda Chapter (Cincinnati, Ohio) and its Alpha Wives jointly sponsored their fourth annual Scholarship Ball and Sweet Sixteen Pageant119 and Theta Psi Lambda held its annual Emerson James Benefit Dance to raise money for deserving minority students in the Raritan Valley area.120

For community development, Epsilon Lambda Chapter (St. Louis, Missouri) was a leader in the Fraternity’s housing program, responsible for over $5 million of housing opportunities in the West End of St. Louis.121 Gamma Iota Lambda Chapter (Brooklyn, New York) was heavily involved in the sickle cell testing program, Project Upward Bound, a program that met with and encouraged “disadvantaged” students to continue to college, and worked with the Bedford‐ Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation to rebuild the Brooklyn ghetto areas.122 Iota Alpha Lambda (Aberdeen, Maryland) also implemented a major sickle cell screening program, testing 135 people total.123 For service during the holidays, Beta Beta Lambda Chapter (Miami,  Florida) donated toys and clothing to the needy and money to a children’s hospital.124

In 1973, Brother James M. Trent was a charter member of the Prince George’s County Coalition for School Desegregation; he served as a member of the committee that wrote the charter to reorganize the county government. He also served as president of the Ardmore Citizens Council on Racial Discord.125 Also focusing on race relations, Brother John Louis Wilson made an architectural counseling center for young students out of his office, visiting high schools in New York’s ghetto areas to teach about his line of work, and worked with a civil liberties group to “alleviate racial imbalance.”126 Brother Haley Bell, one of the founders of the first black radio station in Michigan, provided many opportunities for black technicians and performers along with running programs meant to reflect the lives of Detroit African Americans.127 Brother Dunbar Simms McLaurin, founder of the Freedom National Bank, Harlem’s first African American bank, passed away leaving behind a career devoted to improving the conditions of poor communities in New York.128

In the political community, Brother Lewis Caldwell, a member of the Illinois House of Representatives, authored a bill that proposed legalizing a kind of betting game called bolita to greatly reduce organized crime and used ten percent of the receipts for welfare and education.129 Additionally, Joseph T. Taylor, a dean at Indiana University, was commissioned to draft a desegregation plan for Indianapolis public schools.130 Brother Belford V. Lawson was elected the president of the National Council of the YMCA after successfully arguing before the Supreme Court that African Americans were entitled to equal treatment while traveling on railroads in Henderson v. Southern Railway Company.131 Brother Francis A. Kornegay became the first Urban League executive director to earn a Ph.D. when he received his degree from the University of Michigan, producing a seven point mandate to improve living conditions.132 Brother Edward Rodgers was appointed as the first African American Judge of the Palm Beach County Courts133 and Andrew L. Jefferson, Jr. was chosen as one of thirty‐seven top elected officials to serve on a committee in charge of revising and rewriting a state constitution.134

In 1973, Brother William T. Coleman, acting as Assistant Regional Attorney, litigated Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Cronin before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri. The EEOC brought an action charging discrimination in employment in violation of the Civil Rights Act. On defendants’ motion to dismiss, the District Court held that the prior filing and prosecution of private class action pursuant to a “right to  sue” notice precludes later filing of a duplicitous action by the Commission. This court agreed with the earlier decision citing Judge Wangelin of this Court in Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Missouri Pacific Railroad Company and Judge Meredith in Crump v. Wagner Electric Corporation. The court’s decision was based on finding no evidence of any Congressional intent to permit duplicitous actions. The court ordered that the action be and the same is hereby dismissed without prejudice to the right of plaintiff to file an application to intervene in the pending private action.135

During his years in practice, Brother William H. Brown, III, litigated a number of cases, seeking to vindicate the rights of African Americans. For example, Brother Brown litigated Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. American Telephone & Telegraph Company before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania in 1973. In that case, a labor union sought to intervene as a plaintiff in an action challenging allegedly discriminatory employment practices of a conglomerate constituting the largest single private employer in the country. The court held that: 1) the union had no right to intervene under the Fair Labor Standards Act or the executive order forbidding discrimination by government contractors, and 2) that intervention as a “person or persons aggrieved” under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would be restricted to the scope of charges the union had earlier instituted with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.136

In 1973, Brother Louis L. Redding served as amicus curiae in State v. Dickerson before the Supreme Court of Delaware. The defendant Dickerson and the state sought guidance regarding the constitutionality of capital punishment under the first degree murder statute. Because of the Supreme Court’s decision that capital punishment under certain circumstances was unconstitutional, Dickerson and the state sought guidance as to whether the Delaware Code was constitutional. The court ruled for the defendant. The Delaware Code was unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment because the jury had uncontrolled discretion whether to impose the death penalty. The court ruled for Dickerson regarding the unconstitutionality of capital punishment under the Recommendation of Mercy Statute.137

Alpha Phi Alpha’s twenty‐fourth General President, Brother Walter Washington addressed the Fraternity in 1974, affirming the organization’s vow to promote education and economic growth in African American communities. He proposed the brothers of the Fraternity conduct a special rededication service to deepen their appreciation for all the Fraternity stands for and the triumph it has yet to bring.138 He presented his new agenda that instructed members to look inward to fortify the Fraternity and further benefit the  community. Also part of his “New Agenda” was the establishment of the $1 Million Education Endowment.139 The Education Endowment would soon grow to be a central project to General President Washington’s tenure.

As a part of the Fraternity’s goal for the seventies of the “Elimination of the Ghetto,” General President Walter Washington made a speech at the Sixty‐Eighth Anniversary Convention in San Francisco urging chapters to expand their education programs.140 He also established the Fraternity’s Commission on Business Encouragement to grow existing African American businesses and to encourage younger brothers to go into business and start businesses of their own.141 Alpha Phi Alpha voted unanimously to donate a grant of $30,000 to help rebuild the damage done to the three damaged institutions by a tornado in Wilberforce, Ohio.142 Additionally, the Fraternity passed a formal resolution of support for the N.A.A.C.P.143

To focus on education, Delta Kappa Chapter (Alcorn College) initiated a club in Jefferson High School to encourage students to continue on to college and carried out activities such as drug abuse discussions and fundraisers for families in need.144 The Illinois State University chapter assisted in tutoring and counseling for children, and holding a food drive for families in need145 and Iota Chapter (Morris Brown College) gave $500 to the college to distribute as scholarships to the five freshmen at the top of their class.146

With focus on community support, Delta Phi Chapter (Jackson College) worked with boys between the ages of nine and twelve, providing them with counseling, tutoring, and athletic programs. Delta Phi Chapter also worked with the Alpha Epsilon Chapter (University of California—Berkeley) to conduct a voter registration drive throughout the city.147 Iota Zeta Chapter (University of Maryland) co‐sponsored a dance with the Black Student Union to raise money for the Sickle Cell Anemia Center at Howard University.148 These funds were matched by brothers of Zeta Nu Chapter (Eastern Illinois University) with $800 to the Center for Sickle Cell Disease and the Central State Recovery Fund to repair damages a tornado caused to Central State University in Ohio.149 Omicron Lambda Alpha held income tax clinics for people in their community and low‐income housing rehabilitation projects alongside150 the San Antonio chapter sponsoring its eighth annual Toy Dance, at which brothers and their families were invited to bring with them toys to donate to families in need.151

These efforts in community support were echoed by the Memphis chapter fundraising over $65,000 to throw a Christmas party with toys, food, and clothing for Memphis children152 and Kappa Theta Lambda Chapter (Teaneck, New Jersey) gave $5.00 for every chapter member to the SEHAL Drought Fund for Africa and $100 to the Legal Defense and Educational Fund.153 To assist in development, Iota Upsilon Lambda (Silver Spring, Maryland) held a conference for Maryland citizens on blacks and public education, focusing on the theme: “Montgomery County School System: Are Blacks and Other Minorities In or Out?”154 In partnership with the N.A.A.C.P., Epsilon Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Flint, Michigan) registered 646 new voters through its voter registration drive.155 Eta Alpha Lambda’s (New Haven, Connecticut) annual scholarship dance had given more than $46,000 in scholarships and financial aid to assist 205 New Haven minority students,156 and Delta Delta Lambda Chapter (West Palm Beach, Florida) co‐sponsored free glaucoma and hypertension examinations with the Florida Society for the Prevention of Blindness.157

Notable political achievements included Brother George H. Brown, Jr. elected as President of the Memphis Board of Education, the youngest and first African American to ever hold the position,158 and Brother Ozell Sutton, the United States Justice Department’s community relations director, giving a speech at the southern regional convention stressing the need for more African Americans to take active roles in policy‐making bodies.159 Additionally, Brother Erwin A. France served as Administrative Assistant to the mayor of Chicago,160 and Governor Jimmy Carter appointed Brother Horace T. Ward as a judge on the Civil Court of Georgia’s Fulton County.161 In Congress, Brother Harold E. Ford became the first African American from Tennessee to be elected and the youngest African American ever elected.162 In response to discussions at the general conference, Brother Lemorie Carter from Omicron Lambda Chapter in Birmingham initiated a successful voter registration drive in Birmingham.163 Civil activism was continued by Brother Dr. Charles Willie, who resigned as the highest ranking layman in the Episcopal Church in protest of its ban against women becoming priests.164

In 1974, Brothers Ernest A. Finney, Jr., Robert Belton, and Julius leVonne Chambers, along with Jonathan P. Wallas and Jack Greenburg, litigated Ellison v. Rock Hill Printing & Finishing Company before the District Court of South Carolina. This suit was a class action brought for alleged deprivation of civil rights by Ellison and other plaintiffs, African American applicants, employees, and union members. Ellison and the others filed a motion seeking separate trials on the issues of liability and damages. The court first ordered a trial on the issue of defendants’ liability for class discrimination and, if found liable, a special master to be appointed to preside over and make recommendations as to the issue of damages in the form of back pay to be awarded to Ellison and the other members in the class they represent. The court ordered bifurcation in order to lighten the caseload for each judge.

The judge stated that the Ellison had the burden of proving that: (1) there were severe economic disparities between the earnings of white and African American employees; (2) African American employees were confined to low paying job classifications; and (3) promotions given to African Americans were limited substantially to higher paying jobs formerly held by African Americans. Therefore, only the policy of the company and the union were to be scrutinized, not  the individual treatment. At the second trial, each class member had to prove membership to a class and that he had suffered financial loss. The special master would then prepare a report on each individual claim for submission to the court for critical review. In short, the motions for a separate trial and for the reference of a second trial to a special master were granted.165

In 1974, Brother William T. Coleman litigated Glass v. Philadelphia Electric Company before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. In that case, Harold Glass sued his employer alleging racial discrimination in employment. Glass was trying to decide whether to proceed with the case as a class action law suit. Upon a second motion for a time extension, the Judge denied it, stating that Glass had been unwilling to comply with the defendant’s granted motion for discovery information and answers to interrogatories. Therefore, Glass’ motion for an extension of time in which to determine whether the suit should proceed as a class action would be denied.166

Under the leadership of General President Washington, the Fraternity deepened its commitment to economic improvement in regards to the black community. The Sixty‐Ninth Anniversary Meeting in 1975, focused on “Alpha’ Outreach to Business.”167 Keynote speaker, Brother Louis Martin, award‐winning journalist and former deputy chairman of the Democratic National Committee, suggested that “two major problems faced black nosiness leaders.”168 “First, the black consumer felt no loyalty to black business; second, some black entrepreneurs had ‘unbusiness‐like’ attitudes.”169 Despite these problems, Brother Martin remained optimistic. Brother Lowell W. Perry also addressed the Fraternity on a call to help the black community professionally and economically. Brother Perry was the third successive Alpha Phi Alpha brother to chair the United States Equal Employment Opportunities Commission.170 He asked his brothers to “stay in the fight against bigotry and inequality, explaining that too many sacrifices had been made for us to give up now.”171

With goals of fostering education, Gamma Zeta Chapter (Fort Valley State College) presented its $400 Henry McGloughlin Memorial Scholarship to a student172 and Beta Gamma Chapter (Virginia State University) brothers tutored children living in the Baptist Children’s Home, assisted in renovating the A.P. Hill Community Center, and were chosen by a group of boys at Petersburg High as their “honorary big brothers” to give them guidance and leadership.173 Kappa Gamma Chapter (University of North Alabama) participated in a Big Brother program as well174 and Epsilon Phi Chapter (Northern Illinois University) sponsored a student loan program for young African Americans.175

Health outreach included: Epsilon Nu Chapter’s sickle cell anemia awareness project, a voter registration drive, and an annual scholarship award;176 Beta Epsilon Chapter’s benefit drive that raised $100 dollars for the Greensboro Heart Association;177 and Gamma Phi Chapter’s (Tuskegee Institute) Heart Fund Walkathon, a special class project for mentally handicapped children, and aiding victims of a tornado that had damaged the community.178 Additionally, Kappa Kappa Chapter (University of Arkansas) held a drive for the fight against sickle cell anemia,179 and Epsilon Iota held an “Alpha Week” at the beginning of December that raised $500 for a fourteen year‐old sickle cell anemia patient.180

Alumni youth and community outreach included Iota Psi Lambda Chapter’s (Albuquerque, New Mexico) golf and tennis clinic for minority students at secondary schools,181 and Zeta Zeta Lambda’s senior citizen center in Cambria Heights, New York.182 Beta Delta Lambda (Daytona Beach, Florida) contributed to the United Negro College Fund and Dollars for Scholars local educational fund and helped run the Youth Alternatives Program, a program that cares for runaway children found in the Halifax area,183 and Beta Iota Lambda Chapter (Baton Rouge, Louisiana) collected and donated toys and books to the children at the Pediatric Ward of Earl K. Long Hospital over the Christmas holidays.184 The Norfolk State chapter threw a Halloween party for children at a local hospital,185 Eta Rho Lambda brothers in New York established their Alpha Outreach Tutorial Program to assist inner‐city students academically,186 and Gamma Xi Lambda from the Twin Cities helped renovate the Zion Group Home for Girls.187 Large events were held by Delta Rho Lambda Chapter (San Antonio, Texas) with the ninth annual Toy Dance, inviting all 800 guests to bring a gift to be donated to children in the community,188 and Pi Lambda Chapter (Little Rock, Arkansas) held its fifth annual Debutante Ball to raise money for contributions to several local organizations.189

Scholarship efforts were completed by Eta Alpha Lambda Chapter (New Haven, Connecticut) with a “Book Party” raising over $80,000 worth of grants for African American students in New Haven.190 Zeta Alpha Lambda (Fort Lauderdale, Florida) contributed $600 to the United Negro College Fund,191 and Zeta Rho Lambda Chapter (Delaware) held its fifth Annual Gospel Festival in 1975, which attracted gospel choirs in the area to compete and raise money for the chapter’s various scholarships given to Delaware State College students.192 Similarly, Iota Alpha Lambda Chapter (Aberdeen, Maryland) sponsored its Annual Fall Fashion Fair to raise funds for its scholarship award.193

Achievements in politics were made by Brother William T. Coleman, who President Ford appointed as the United States’ fourth Secretary of Transportation.194 Notable brothers were remembered, including Paul Robeson an athlete, singer, actor, and a leader in the civil rights movement.195 Brother Lester B. Granger, former Executive Director of the National Urban League, also passed away after working as Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy during World War II, carrying out a tour to survey racial problems in the Navy.196

In 1975, Brother Louis L. Redding represented plaintiff in the State ex rel. Hall v. Camper case before the Supreme Court of Delaware. A defendant school board moved for summary judgment in a plaintiff principal’s action seeking the restoration of his position at the elementary school or one year’s salary. The principal was hired to work for two years. The contract provided that the board could terminate the contract in writing no later than six months before the contract’s termination. The school board sent the notice within the six month time period but Hall did not receive it. The principal filed suit contending that his contract was automatically extended because the termination notice was not given to him in a timely matter. The defendant’s motion for wrongful termination was denied.197

In 1975, Brother William T. Coleman litigated Rodgers v. United States Steel Corp before the Third Circuit Court. In that case, African American employees of the steel company, Jimmi L. Rodgers and John A. Turner, brought action against the company and steel workers’ union seeking injunctive relief and back pay to remedy employment discrimination in the steel plant. The United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania, postponed the class action determination, ordered a stay in all proceedings including all discovery, and restricted communications with potential members of the class by Rodgers, Turner, or their attorneys. Rodgers and Turner appealed, and alternatively petitioned for a writ of mandamus or prohibition. The Court of Appeals held that the orders postponing class action determination and staying all proceedings were not final appealable orders, that the orders were not appealable as interlocutory orders denying injunctive relief, and that the orders postponing class action determination and staying all proceedings were not outside the sphere of the court’s discretionary power, and thus not subject to mandamus or prohibition. But that a local district court rule, empowering the district court to require prior judicial approval of communications between plaintiffs, their attorneys, or third parties, when such communication sought to encourage common participation in a lawsuit, was outside the statutory authority of the district court, and thus subject to writ of mandamus or prohibition. The appeals were dismissed and writ granted. The Third Circuit, decision written by Weis, concurred with that opinion. The court cites Switzerland Cheese Association v. E. Horne’s Market, in regards to the appealability of the order. Judge Weis agrees with Parts I, II, and III, as mentioned above, but disagrees in his conclusion stating that the district court does have the right to promulgate a rule applicable to class actions before certification has been ordered.198

General President Washington took Alpha Phi Alpha to new heights in August of 1976. Establishing a new precedent, unlike any the world had ever seen, the Seventieth Anniversary Meeting was held at the Ducor International in Monrovia, Liberia.199 During the Bicentennial of the United States and the Seventieth Anniversary of Alpha Phi Alpha, the Fraternity became the first African American Greek‐letter organization to hold its annual convention on the African continent, thereby setting a new model for what it really meant to be active in the national and global community.200 At Alpha Phi Alpha’s Seventieth General Convention in New York, General President Walter Washington announced the Fraternity’s commitment to raise $1 million over five years for the United Negro College Fund, the Urban League, and the N.A.A.C.P.201 It also called for a federally funded public works and services program to ensure the availability of jobs for those who need them, a social insurance program that had financial safeguards and social security to eventually make a public welfare system unnecessary, passage of adequate health insurance legislation, and legislation that would secure open housing for every community.202 From this initiative, chapters collaborated to hold a Leadership Development/Citizenship Education Workshop for high‐school students.203 One of the Fraternity’s national programs was called Project L.E.A.D., a community service project with the object of encouraging young black students to continue their education into college,204 and the Fraternity completed legislation to officially begin construction of a $3.5 million middle school in July.205

Community outreach within chapters included: Kappa Tau Chapter (Kansas State University), Alpha Mu Chapter (Northwestern University), and Iota Eta Chapter’s (Mercer University) Big Brother programs;206 Delta Xi Chapter’s (Central State College) program featuring storytelling, cartoons, and group games for about twenty students every Saturday morning;207 and Gamma Beta Chapter’s (North Carolina College) program for mentally handicapped persons at a Halloween party with music and games for residents.208 Delta Phi Chapter’s (Jackson College) Community Action Project took fifty children between the ages of eight and thirteen to play tennis, swim, and play basketball against other teams in the area.209 Gamma Phi Chapter (Tuskegee Institute) initiated the Veterans Administration Project that had the brothers visiting a veterans’ hospital twice a week to talk with and entertain the patients.210 Iota Nu Chapter’s (University of Alabama—Birmingham) programs included collecting money for the United Negro College Fund, holding Red Cross blood drives and breast cancer detection seminars, and offered tutoring services to students in area schools.211 Tutoring and a book exchange were also offered by Epsilon Pi Chapter (Norfolk State College).212 Iota Zeta Chapter (University of Maryland) in conjunction with the university’s Delta Sigma Theta Chapter, sponsored a bus to transport students to the polls during the election,213 and Kappa Rho Chapter (C. W. Post College) held a successful voter registration drive on campus.214 Money for the community was raised by Beta Nu Chapter who caroled in the Tallahassee Mall for the Salvation Army,215 and Beta Gamma Chapter (Virginia State College) who held its second annual Toys for Tots Program and gathered more than $1,500 worth of items for the Baptist Children’s Home.216

Education was funded by Omicron Chapter’s (University of Pittsburgh) Black and Gold Ball and Banquet in establishing a $1,000 scholarship for an incoming African American freshmen,217 as well as Epsilon Delta Chapter’s (Kent State University) Alphas In Concert program to establish a scholarship fund in honor of the chapter’s past director.218 Gamma Phi Chapter (Tuskegee Institute) implemented its Tutorial Project with biology and math tutoring sessions twice a week to students.219 Tutoring was also offered by Epsilon Phi Chapter (Northern Illinois University) with its Alpha Phi Alpha Reading program,220 and Delta Theta Chapter (Texas Southern University) tutored with the local branch of the YWCA.221

In conjunction with the Emory University School of Medicine and the American Heart Association, the brothers of Mu Alpha Chapter (Emory University) conducted free blood pressure clinics at major shopping centers in Atlanta throughout the spring of 1976.222 Additionally, Beta Gamma Chapter (Virginia State College) helped a sickle cell anemia testing clinic at the Johnston Memorial Hospital and participated in a twenty mile walk‐a‐thon to raise $150 for the Chesterfield County Shoe Fund.223

Contributions in the field of educational community service included: Alpha Phi Lambda Chapter’s (Norfolk, Virginia) federally funded program that worked with students in local libraries after school; Delta Sigma Lambda Chapter’s (Pine Bluff, Arkansas) tutoring program for high school students; and Theta Beta Lambda Chapter’s (Richmond, California) educational guidance program with the Oakland Public Schools.224 In Paducah, Kentucky, brothers pledged continual support for a scholarship fund to give two $250 awards every year to incoming freshmen at Murray State University,225 and Alpha Eta Lambda (Prairie View, Texas), Eta Mu (University of Texas), and Delta (Tillotson College) Chapters awarded the Annual Merit Scholarship of $1,000.226 The Delta Upsilon Lambda Chapter (Shreveport, Louisiana) held an event as a part of its Education for Citizenship Week to honor more than ninety high‐performing high school and university students in the Louisiana area.227 Omicron Lambda Alpha (Washington, D.C.) held its Annual Scholarship Cabaret to raise money for the United Negro College Fund,228 Kappa Kappa Lambda Chapter (Baltimore, Maryland) participated in a weekend tutoring program for inner‐city children,229 and Eta Rho Lambda Chapter (Rochester, New York) held its annual Dr. Charles Lunsford Scholarship Dinner‐Dance.230 Additionally, Zeta Zeta Lambda Chapter (St. Albans, New York) formed its Sepia Committee charged with planning and implementing its “Summer of ’76 Tutorial, Enrichment and Career Pilot Program” for twelve seventh‐grade students in the area.231

Youth were reached by Kappa Omicron Lambda Chapter’s (Vallejo, California) program called “Early Bird,” a year‐long career awareness project for two seventh grade classes at Solano Junior High School,232 and Theta Gamma Lambda Chapter’s (Dothan, Alabama) Founders’ Day Buffet‐Dinner Dance presented forty boxes of clothes and toys to the Salvation Army.233 In Washington, D.C., community awareness was sponsored by Mu Lambda Chapter’s Forum Committee to host discussions once a month at local churches on “How to get Action out of City Hall,” “Effect of Black Children in Education in Urban Communities,” and “Impact of the Negro on City Government and the Black Community.”234 `Epsilon Rho Lambda and Epsilon Zeta chapters in North Carolina held forums in Fayetteville to familiarize citizens on the political issues and candidates of the upcoming election,235 Zeta Omicron Lambda Chapter (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) made a donation of $500 at the beginning of 1977 to the N.A.A.C.P.’s fund to appeal the “Mississippi boycott decision.”236 Alpha Nu Lambda Chapter conducted two studies on both the environmental impact of noise pollution in Tuskegee and the Tuskegee‐Macon County Juvenile Probation Agency and made recommendations on how to reduce said environmental impact and on how to increase the efficiency of the probation agency’s services.237

Political achievements were made by Brother Andrew Young, who accepted President‐Elect Jimmy Carter’s nomination as the United States Ambassador to the United Nations,238 as well as James R. Williams who was appointed United States District Attorney for the Northern District of Ohio and was responsible for enforcing all civil and criminal laws in the Cleveland, Akron, and Youngstown areas,239 and Brother Milton Davis, the assistant attorney general for Alabama who played a large role in getting a pardon for the last survivor of the Scottsboro Boys case—Clarence Norris.240 Renardo A. Hall won the 1976 College Brother of the Year award for organizing a number of projects the chapter held for the Rockford Children’s Orphanage, including a day of activities for the children and planning a Miss Black Eboness Pageant to raise money for the home.241

In 1976, Brother Louis L. Redding and Kenneth L. Johnson represented the plaintiffs in the Marshall v. Electric Hose & Rubber Company case before United States District Court for the District of Delaware. Plaintiff Marshall and other employees and plaintiff‐ intervener, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, brought a class action against defendants, company, and unions, alleging racial employment and representation discrimination in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. Marshall filed a motion to strike the company’s demand for a jury trial. The court denied Marshall’s motion to strike the company’s demand for a jury trial. The court held that the company, and therefore unions, were entitled to a trial by jury on the issues presented by the claims for the actual, punitive, and exemplary damages.242

The standard of commitment set forth by General President Washington was advanced when Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Incorporated installed Brother James R. Williams as the organization’s twenty‐fifth General President on January 8, 1977.243 Much of his efforts were focused on service to urban centers, which Brother Williams called the “soul of our nation.”244 General President Williams appointed Brother Maynard Jackson, mayor of Atlanta, Georgia, and Brother Andrew Young, United States ambassador to the United Nations, as honorary chairmen of the 71st Anniversary General Convention.245 The Convention was set to take place August 5‐10, 1977. A major goal of the Seventy‐First Convention was to renew fellowship through an illustration of the Fraternity’s development and history.246

Men of the Fraternity like Brother Martin and Brother Perry served as great support for General President Williams as he built upon what General President Washington had started. He updated Alpha Phi Alpha, Inc.’s Business Encouragement Week programming guide in March 1977, hoping to spur more social and economic development. Traditionally the second week in May, Business Encouragement Week was a time for college and alumni chapters to develop programs to promote business awareness and development, especially by African American and minority youth with the hope that they would enroll in business‐oriented courses and major in business administration.247 Brothers John H. Johnson and Leroy W. Jeffries co‐chaired the Commission on Business Encouragement and called for chapters to hold workshops and seminars on business development, business executive practices, and ways to build business libraries.248 The restructuring of Business Encouragement Week arose out of the  sudden growth in business service industries during the 1970s. Up until this time, most black businesses served predominately black communities in personal service industries.249 The 1970s brought numerous opportunities and potential for the African American population to break from the mold, and the Fraternity wanted to further that objective.

The Seventy‐First Anniversary General Convention in August of 1977 marked the beginning of a new philanthropic endeavor known as Alpha’s Million Dollar Fundraising Drive. The goal of the project was to raise one million dollars to benefit the United Negro College Fund, the N.A.A.C.P., and the Urban League, three organizations where Alpha men played decisive roles in their formation.250 The campaign would eventually be completed during the Seventy‐Fourth Convention.251

In August of 1977 Alpha Phi Alpha awarded several prestigious honors during the Seventy‐First Anniversary General Convention. The Alpha Meritorious Service Award was given to Brother Milton C. Davis for his work as the Alabama assistant attorney general when he secured a pardon in 1976 for Clarence Norris, the last survivor of the  “Scottsboro Boys” case.252 Norris was serving a life sentence for his 1931 conviction where he was found guilty of raping two white women on a freight train in northern Alabama.253 Brother Davis researched and wrote the opinion that led Alabama Attorney General Bill Baxley to conclude that Norris never should have been found guilty, thus persuading Governor Wallace to issue a pardon of innocence.254 Among the honorees was Brother William T. Coleman, Jr., the former United States Secretary of Transportation, where he received the Alpha Award of Merit.255 After graduating Magna Cum Laude from Harvard Law School, Brother Coleman became the first African American United States Supreme Court law clerk under Justice Frankfurter.256 Not only did Brother Coleman work with the N.A.A.C.P. Legal Defense and Educational Fund, but he was one of the co‐authors of the legal brief for Brown v. Board of Education, henceforth ending the doctrine of “separate but equal.”257

Projects participated in by the Fraternity as a whole included the national Education Foundation urging all chapters to establish an education committee258 and Project Runners in the Virginia chapters where the brothers served as tutors for children.259 President James Williams dedicated the General Convention as a tribute to “The Black Woman,”260 and the Fraternity presented a check of $3,000 to Coretta Scott King for the Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Social Change as a portion of its two‐year $5,000 commitment.261

Participation in the community included Theta Rho Chapter’s (Virginia Commonwealth University) blood drive and raffle for the N.A.A.C.P.,262 Kappa Eta (Memphis State University) and Iota Eta (Mercer University) chapters’ Big Brothers for the local Boy’s Club,263 and Gamma Phi Chapter’s (Tuskegee Institute) Veterans Administration Hospital visits and weekly program, the Howard Road Tutorial Program, that offered tutoring services for students.264 Alpha Gamma Chapter (Brown University) had its Thanksgiving Basket and Operation Headstart Christmas Party Programs and assisted in the Volunteer Income Tax Assistance Program.265 Additionally, Upsilon Chapter (Kansas University) sponsored its Second Annual Alpha Phi Alpha Run‐A‐Thon to raise approximately $500 for the Clinic Construction Renovation Project in Liberia.266 Delta Tau Chapter (St. Paul’s College) distributed Thanksgiving baskets to families, donated magazines to various hospitals, and held a Valentine’s raffle to raise money for the national Fraternity’s one‐million dollar fund.267 Kappa Eta Chapter (Memphis State University) donated a Ping‐Pong table to the local boys club, held a benefit dance to raise money for the victims of a house fire nearby and sponsored a “college awareness program” at several high schools in the Memphis area.268

Political efforts included Epsilon Kappa Chapter’s (Bradley University) door to door voter participation increasing turnout269 and Kappa Eta Chapter’s (Memphis State University) extensive work with the Memphis Black Media Coalition in an attempt to remove an offensive television show off the air.270 Gamma Eta Chapter (Indiana State University) also sold donuts to raise money for the N.A.A.C.P.271 Work with sickle cell anemia included Alpha Xi Chapter’s (University of Washington) inter‐fraternal basketball game offering sickle cell anemia tests272 and Mu Phi Chapter’s (University of Bridgeport) Greek Show performance at a Sickle Cell Anemia Foundation fundraiser.273

The Alpha Wives of Mu Lambda Chapter (Washington, D.C.) organized the Inaugural Prayer Breakfast, where they presented a check to the President of the N.A.A.C.P274 and Epsilon Lambda Chapter presented a check for $2,076 to the N.A.A.C.P. chapter in their home of St. Louis.275 Similarly, the Iota Upsilon Lambda Alpha Wives from Maryland organized the Montgomery County Ebony Fashion Fair to raise $1,400 for the N.A.A.C.P.276 New Jersey’s Kappa Theta Lambda Chapter raised over $1,000 for the Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Social Change in Atlanta.277

Educational programs were supported by Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio), granting $8,000 to sixteen students and organizing a Leadership Forum for over fifty minority high school students,278 and Delta Omicron Lambda Chapter (Maryland) organized several fundraising efforts to raise $1,000 for its scholarships.279 A series of panel discussions centering on the theme of “The Black West Virginia in the Coal Economy” sponsored by Alpha Iota Lambda stimulated awareness for the necessity of black entrepreneurship.280 Additionally, Zeta Beta Lambda Chapter (Sacramento, California) initiated its Project Motivation Program to provide information to students and parents about occupational programs, state university requirements, and financial aid and scholarship applications,281 and Alpha Delta Lambda Chapter (Memphis, Tennessee) organized its First Annual Student leadership Workshop.282 Their Future Leaders Club worked to improve its members’ leadership skills and to prepare them for college and careers afterward.283

Additional community outreach included Theta Gamma Lambda Chapter’s (Dothan, Alabama) clothing and equipment collection for the local Salvation Army,284 and Iota Xi Lambda Chapter’s (Opelousas, Louisiana) purchasing of eyeglasses for young students whose families could not afford them.285 Delta Lambda Chapter (Baltimore, Maryland) held its First Annual Alpha Invitational Tennis Tournament with proceeds to several inner‐city youth agencies,286 and Mu Beta Lambda Chapter (Hawaii) held its First Annual Benefit Dinner Dance that raised over $5,000 for the United Negro College Fund.287

Individual achievements included Brother Earl Kyle, who co‐ founded a non‐profit corporation called Minds for Progress, working with the corporation, and in particular dealt with investigating how electronics and other innovations enhanced education for technically talented minority students.288 Brother Ray Hatcher was honored for his decades of service for children in the Minneapolis area as director of the Phyllis Wheatley Community Center, negotiating with the University of Minnesota to get its used athletic equipment for children who visited the center.289

Brothers to be remembered included Hubert H. Humphrey, who left behind a legacy in civil rights activism, the creation of the Peace Corps and the Food for Peace plan, and served as floor leader for the 1964 Civil Rights Act.290 General President Antonio Maceo Smith also passed away, had played an instrumental role in raising money for the N.A.A.C.P. in the 1944 Texas case that allowed African Americans the right to vote in the primaries.291

In 1977, Brother Louis L. Redding represented the plaintiff‐ appellees in the Evans v. Buchanan case before the Third Circuit Court. Plaintiffs Evans and others sued defendants, state board and officials, alleging that a school district reorganization would cause irreversible harm to the desegregation process. The state board adopted a reorganization plan that would divide a single court‐created school district into four independent school districts. The court determined that while the division of the school district itself would not imperil desegregation, the reorganization proposal could not be approved unless legislation passed it. The court declined to approve the reorganization plan, but issued an interim order giving the state legislature sixty days to pass curative legislation or to allow the state board to do so.292

At the Seventy‐Second General Convention in 1978, the theme was “Political Action,” and the Fraternity urged the brothers to take a greater interest in the African American community through supporting causes such as better health care, survival of the African American college, African American development and businesses, and equal rights for women.293 The Fraternity issued its Public Policy Statement. Among examining issues related to education, civil rights, and juvenile delinquency, the statement called for the release of the men and women who had come to be known as the “Wilmington 10.” These African American individuals had been convicted for allegedly burning down a white‐owned grocery store and shooting at the first responders in 1972.294 Sentenced in 1975, many served four to five years in jail before the federal appeals court in Chavis v. State of North Carolina.295 The Fraternity also used the Statement to illuminate the destructively high levels of unemployment, particularly among urban African American youth.296 The Fraternity pushed for the passage and implantation of the Humphrey–Hawkins Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act in order to make positive societal changes.297 President Carter eventually signed the Act into law on October 7, 1978.

The movement for integration in education experienced a setback in June 1978 with the Supreme Court’s decision in Regents of University of California. v. Bakke. After Allen Bakke, a white applicant, was denied admission to the University of California—Davis Medical School, he sued the University claiming “reverse discrimination” since the school has a 16% quota for minorities including African Americans.298 The quota was an attempt to rectify the injustice caused by decades of discrimination with the hope that more African American doctors would improve the health care and lives of the African American population.299 Brother Justice Thurgood Marshall penned the dissent in the five to four case that, much to Justice Marshall’s dismay, ultimately made quotas unlawful. Justice Marshall explained the importance of bringing African Americans into mainstream American life and that undoing pervasive racism should be a state interest of the highest order.300

The Seventy‐Second General Convention saw the recognition of Judge Constance Baker Motley (Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority) as the newest recipient of the Alpha Award of Honor, the highest recognition given to a non‐member.301 Aside from being the first African American woman elected to the New York State Senate, the first woman elected Manhattan Borough President, and the first African American female federal judge, Judge Motley made significant contributions to the desegregation of educational institutions.302 She helped write the briefs for Brown v. Board of Education.303 Judge Motley argued Holmes v. Danner, ordered the desegregation of the University of Georgia, and thereby allowed the admission of Brother Hamilton Holmes.304 She also argued and won Meredith v. Fair, which resulted in James Meredith’s admission as the first African American student at the University of Mississippi.305 When Judge Motley spoke at the Convention, she called upon the brothers of the Fraternity to recommit themselves to a drive for full human rights for both men and women.306

In order to protect strides made by African Americans at educational institutions, the Public Policy Statement from the Seventy‐ Second Convention requested that the federal government increase funding to Historically Black Colleges and Universities (“HBCUs”) and urged the community to monitor conditions at other institutions.307 Time and time again, the men of Alpha Phi Alpha called upon their own to protect and develop their community.

The Seventy‐Second General Convention saw the recognition of female leaders in the African American community. The Alpha Phi Alpha Leadership Award was presented to: Margaret Bush Wilson, chair of the N.A.A.C.P. Board of Directors; Thelma T. Daley, president of Delta Sigma Theta; Bernice Sumlin, Supreme Basileus of Alpha Kappa Alpha; Evelyn Hood, Grand Basileus of Sigma Gamma Rho; Janice Kissner, Grand Basileus of Zeta Phi Beta; Pauline A. Ellison, national president of the Links, Inc.; Robin Owens, president of the National Association for Negro Business and Professional Women’s Clubs; and Dorothy Height, president of the National Council of Negro Women.308 At the same Convention, Brother Williams was unanimously voted into a second term as General President.309 Upon his inauguration ceremony, Brother Williams reaffirmed Alpha Phi Alpha, Inc.’s commitment to serve as a catalyst for developing strong leadership within the African American community and for continuing to support those institutions vital to the survival and progress of African Americans.310

To increase involvement in the community, Gamma Tau Chapter (Michigan State University) sponsored a Halloween party at the South Side Boy’s Club of Lansing,311 Kappa Alpha Chapter (University of Alabama) painted the outpatient wing of Bryce Hospital and the Insight Center,312 and Beta Sigma Chapter (Southern University) donated $200 to a local library.313 Additionally, Alpha Rho Chapter (Morehouse College) and its Alpha Angels held its annual Halloween party for the children participating in the Frederick Douglas Tutorial Program,314 and Epsilon Beta Chapter (Fresno State College) brought underprivileged children on a trip to see the Ringling Brothers Circus.315 Eta Phi Chapter (Chattanooga) restored a condemned house and turned it into a haunted house to raise money for the Multiple Sclerosis Society.316 Eta Chi Chapter (North East Louisiana University) made regular visits to St. Joseph’s and Mary Goss nursing homes to visit with residents.317 On campuses, Zeta Eta Chapter (Columbia University) sponsored two on‐campus career conferences for minority students,318 and Gamma Upsilon Chapter (Tougaloo College) raised the $1,500 necessary to acquire an ambulance for the school.319

Community activism was championed by Mu Zeta Lambda Chapter (Lakeland, Florida), with a blood drive for the R. P. Tew Memorial Blood Center and sexual assault program. They also sponsored a disco party with other fraternities and sororities to raise money for the Fraternity’s N.A.A.C.P. One Million Dollar Fund Drive.320 In cooperation with the Alliance of Black Educators, Zeta Beta Lambda Chapter (Sacramento, California) co‐sponsored a conference to address the issues that divided African American and Mexican‐American educators.321 Epsilon Rho Lambda Chapter (Fayetteville, North Carolina) had different themes each month to guide its community programs for “The Year of the Black Child,”322 and Eta Psi Lambda Chapter (Tucson, Arizona) raised $100 for a large mural depicting the history of African Americans to be painted somewhere in the community.323

In their community, Iota Omicron Lambda Chapter (Colorado Springs, Colorado) distributed Thanksgiving and Christmas baskets to families, sponsored an Easter egg hunt for children at the Head Start Center, and awarded to graduating high school seniors over $1,300.324 The brothers of Iota Lambda Chapter (Indianapolis, Indiana) and their Alpha Wives distributed Christmas gifts to residents at Brother Dailey’s Convalescent Home.325

Brothers to be remembered included United States Representative and civil rights activist Brother Ralph H. Metcalfe, Sr.326 The civil rights lawyer who became a federal judge, Brother Joseph C. Waddy, was also acknowledged by the Fraternity.327 Political achievements were made by Brother Louis Emanuel Martin, appointed Special Assistant by President Jimmy Carter,328 Brother Ellis F. Bullock Jr., chosen as executive director of Jostens Foundation,329 and Brother Marion Barry who won the office of Mayor of Washington, D.C. with 70% of the vote.330 Brother Ronald W. Burris won the election to the office of Comptroller of the State of Illinois, making him the first African American to win a statewide office in that state,331 and Brother Albert Vann was elected Chairman of the Black and Puerto Rican Caucus in the New York State Assembly.332 Brother Michael J. Price’s featured piece on Alphas in the United States Congress recognized ten of the twenty‐three African American congressmen elected to the House of Representatives as members of Alpha Phi Alpha, and the one black senator was also a Fraternity brother.333 Brother William H. Gray, III was a representative, with accomplishments including the Philadelphia Mortgage Plan that brought over $27 million in residential mortgages for previously redlined areas without spending any government money.334

In 1978, Louis L. Lesesne, Jr. and Brother Julius LeVonne Chambers litigated in Sumler v. City of Winston‐Salem before the Middle District of North Carolina. Sumler, an African American male, was terminated from his employment with the city of Winston‐Salem. Sumler brought the action alleging that he was terminated because of his race, that he was denied a due process hearing, and that his termination violated his First Amendment rights of speech and of association. The Court found that the reason for Sumler’s termination was his violation of the city purchasing policy, which prohibited a city employee from buying goods or materials in the name of the city without proper authorization for one’s personal use. Sumler purchased three television sets in the name of the City Recreation Department, thereby obtaining a city‐purchase discount. The court found that the sets were purchased for his own personal use. The court ordered that the Sumler recover nothing of the defendants and that the action be dismissed.335

The Seventy‐Third General Convention was held in Washington, D.C. in August of 1979. The theme was “Alphas in Government: Planning for the Future of Our Children.”336 The mayor of Washington, D.C., Brother Marion Barry, addressed the Fraternity during the Convention, urging all brothers to serve and improve the condition of African Americans through better health care, African development, full voting rights for the District of Columbia, African American business encouragement, equal rights for women, prison reform, and the survival of Historically Black Colleges and Universities.337 Brother Berry proclaimed August 3‐9, 1979 as “Alpha Week” in Washington, D.C., and reminded all of the Fraternity to lift those in the African American community up. Along those same lines, past General President Dr. Lionel H. Newsom stressed that African Americans had to accept greater responsibility for the failings of young African Americans such as their high rate of an inability to read, write, and speak well.338 The Public Policy Statement for the Seventy‐Third Convention reiterated the Fraternity’s mission to increase academic excellence among young African American populations.339 The Statement also called for an end to police brutality, greater screening of police officers, and periodic checks to make sure that the unbalanced police forces would no longer be permitted to abuse their power.340

Alpha Phi Alpha introduced a matching gift program for its million dollar drive for the United Negro College Fund, the National Urban League, and the N.A.A.C.P.341 Community efforts included Theta Beta Chapter’s (Columbus College) annual Thanksgiving canned food drive, collecting approximately 400 canned goods,342 and Beta Chapter’s (Howard University) participation in a Sickle Cell Anemia Foundation Walk‐A‐Thon. They also held several social functions to raise over

$1,000 for the Reading is Fundamental (RIF) program.343 For educational development, Delta Chi Lambda Chapter (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) conducted a career information workshop for students participating in the Distributive Education Clubs.344 Zeta Alpha Lambda Chapter (Fort Lauderdale, Florida) sponsored a professional program for young men called “The Talented Ten” for young men to make presentations on topics of their choices and got to meet with professionals from around the community.345 Additionally, in response to the killing of a sixteen year‐old African American by Akron Police, Eta Tau Lambda Chapter (Akron, Ohio) investigated the incident through its Police/Community Dialog Program.346

Political accomplishments included Birmingham electing Brother Richard Arrington, Jr. as its first African American mayor, winning 54% of the vote.347 Civil activism includes Brother Otha N. Brown, Jr., city councilman and former state legislator, playing a key role in getting the city of Norwalk to declare January fifteenth an official city holiday for Brother Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,348 and Brother Floyd White being awarded a $250,000 settlement after a long legal battle with the Fresno Fire Department for its failure to comply with its affirmative action program.349

In 1979, Brother Ernest Morial litigated Moore v. Tangipahoa Parish School Board before the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit. In that class action, a school desegregation case, the Fifth Circuit held that awards of back pay against a school board are barred by the Eleventh Amendment; however, plaintiffs could seek—and district court could grant—back pay relief as part of a main equitable claim of reinstatement. Further, the Fifth Circuit held that the district court correctly applied the law to the facts, including the assessment that school boards, when converting from a dual system to a unitary one, must establish and abide by written nonracial criteria for the promotion, termination, or rehiring of faculty.350

1 CHARLES H. WESLEY, THE HISTORY OF ALPHA PHI  ALPHA: A DEVELOPMENT  IN  COLLEGE  LIFE 517 (16th ed. 1996).

2 Id. at 519, 524.

3 Id. at 519.

4 Id.

5 Id. at 535.

6 Id. at 535.

7 Id.

8 Id.

9 Id. at 522.

10 Id. at 520.

11 Williams v. Iberville Parish Sch. Bd., 314 F. Supp. 1104 (E.D. La. 1970).

12 Williams v. Iberville Parish Sch. Bd., 421 F.2d 161, 162 (5th Cir. 1969).

13 Haney v. Cty. Bd. of Educ. of Sevier Cty., Ark., 410 F.2d 920 (8th Cir. 1969).

14 McKisick v. Forrest City Special Sch. Dist. No. 7, 427 F.2d 331 (8th Cir. 1970).

15 Clark v. Bd. of Educ. of Little Rock Sch. Dist., 426 F.2d 1035 (8th Cir. 1970).

16 Willingham v. Pine Bluff, Ark., Sch. Dist. No. 3, 425 F.2d 121 (8th Cir. 1970).

17 Kemp v. Beasley, 423 F.2d 851 (8th Cir. 1970).

18 Jones v. Caddo Parish Sch. Bd., 421 F.2d 313 (5th Cir. 1970).

19 Stanley v. Darlington Cty. Sch. Dist., 424 F. 2d 195 (4th Cir. 1970).

20 Valley v. Rapides Par. Sch. Bd., 422 F.2d 814, 815 (5th Cir. 1970).

21 Id.

22 WESLEY, supra note 1, at 521‐22.

23 Id. at 526.

24 Tomas D. Pawley III, Education Foundation News, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 18.

25 Id.

26 Id. at 18, 40.

27 Ernest N. Morial, The General President Speaks, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 2.

28 Id.

29 Beta Delta Chapter [sic], 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 10.

30 Robert E. Lawson, Epsilon Delta Lambda Gives Scholarship, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 24.

31 Gamma Omicron Chapter, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 17.

32 Beta Kappa Chapter, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 19.

33 Nu Chapter Revitalized, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 21.

34 Epsilon Epsilon Chapter, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 18.

35 Fiscal Support and Service to the Needy: Annual Black and Gold Ball, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 7.

36 Laurence T. Young, Alpha Workshop, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 14.

37 Eta Tau Lambda Chapter, Akron, Ohio, Thinks Big, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 51.

38 Epsilon Omicron Lambda Alphas Honor Male Scholars, 57 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 36.

39 Eta Pi Lambda Chapter Scholarships, 57 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 36.

40 Robert L. Fairchild, Alpha Tau Lambda Chapter, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 17.

41 Delta Gamma Lambda, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 20.

42 Beta Beta Lambda Chapter, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 23.

43 Zeta Iota Lambda Chapter, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 14.

44 Bing D. Reddick, Jr., Zeta Zeta Lambda Outreach Program, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 25.

45 Illinois Slatemaker, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 6.

46 Brother Chess Named 1st Black State Judge in N.C., 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 8.

47 Alpha Delta Lambda, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 9.

48 Hodari Kinamo, Match This…Denver in 1972: Monument to Madness, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 18.

49 Brother Ralph H. Metcalfe (Dem. Ill.) Tells AT&T to not Ignore the Poor, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 21.

50 Nominee … General President of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc.: Brother Walter Washington, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 10.

51 Rampart Discrimination in Public Utility Industry—Hiring and Promotional Policies  for Women, Blacks and Other Minorities, THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1971, at 20.

52 Boyd v. Pointe Coupee Par. Sch. Bd., 332 F. Supp. 994 (E.D. La. 1971). 53 Swann v. Charlotte‐Mecklenburg Bd. of Educ., 402 U.S. 1, 25 (1971).  54 Gordon v. Jefferson Davis Par. Sch. Bd., 446 F.2d 266 (5th Cir. 1971). 55 Monteilh v. St. Landry Par. Sch. Bd., 443 F.2d 1182 (5th Cir. 1971).

56 Jackson v. Filliben, 281 A.2d 604 (Del. 1971).

57 Mack v. Gen. Elec. Co., 329 F. Supp. 72 (E.D. Pa. 1971).

58 Mack v. Gen. Elec. Co., 63 F.R.D. 368 (E.D. Pa. 1974).

59 Kermit Hall, Some Convention Highlights, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1972, at 3.

60 Id. at 4.

61 Laurence T. Young, Alpha Workshop, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1972, at 6.

62 Milton C. Davis, A Few True Facts About Black Greeks, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 26.

63 Id.

64 Roy Irons, Gamma Upsilon…Mississippi, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 32.

65 Grads and Undergrads Pool Efforts in Sickle Cell Program, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 9.

66 Alpha Phi Chapter Sponsors Blood Drive, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 13.

67 Alexander, Report of Chairman of Alpha Phi Alpha Building Foundation, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 46.

68 Beta Mu Chapter of Kentucky State University Striving for Excellence, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 17.

69 Rogers K. Jackson, Right On Eta Rho Chapter, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 18.

70 Epsilon Theta Chapter…Bowling Green State University, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 44.

71 Midwest Regional Convention: ‘Big Doings Are Planned’, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1972, at 10.

72 Alpha Tau is Movin’ and Groovin’, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 45.

73 Wayman Rucker, Alpha Zeta Chapter, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 24.

74 Gamma Mu Lambda Chapters Launches on a Big Program, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 34.

75 Economic Development—A Challenge for the Seventies: Theme of Theta Rho Lambda’s Black and Gold Banquet Ball, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1972, at 17.

76 Theta Omicron Lambda’s $1.6 Million Development Breaks Ground for 104 Units, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1972, at 5.

77 Omicron Lambda, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 6‐7.

78 Id. at 7.

79 Alpha Eta Lambda, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 16.

80 Willie T. Ellis, Reflections from Kappa Lambda Chapter, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1972, at 12.

81 Id. at 13.

82 Glenn D. Jones, Alpha Rho Lambda Involved in Huge Projects to Benefit the Community, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 27.

83 Joseph B. Pervall, Educator of the Year, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 39.

84 Brother Tureaud…Passed…Champion of Civil Rights, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1972, at 30.

85 Id. at 31.

86 Charles Rangel, Tributes, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 8.

87 L. W. Oliver, Omicron Lambda 1971‐1972: ‘A Very Fruitful Year’, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 35.

88 Ross E. Townes, Beta Theta Lambda Chapter, Durham, N.C., 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 37.

89 Brother Andrew Young…South’s First Black Congressman in 100 Years, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1972, at 8.

90 David Dinkins Would Change Voting in New York, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 12.

91 Brother Thomas Reed was Honored in Brookhaven, Mississippi, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 29.

92 Brother ‘Chuck’ Stone Charges Bias in Testing Service, 58 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1972, at 24.

93 Brother Felder Wins Federal Lawyer Award, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 25.

94 Zeta Phi Lambda Brother Feted at Testimonial Dinner, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 26. 95 Robert M. King, A News Interpretive…Blacks Taking Hold of Issues, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1973, at 42.

96 Eugene Jackson, National Black Radio Network Owned‐Operated by Blacks, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 4.

97 Dandridge v. Jefferson Par. Sch. Bd., 456 F.2d 552 (5th Cir. 1972).

98 State v. Johnson, 295 A.2d 741 (Del. 1972).

99 Ellison v. Rock Hill Printing & Finishing Co., 347 F. Supp. 436 (D.S.C. 1972).

100 U.S. v. Phila. Elec. Co., 351 F. Supp. 1394 (E.D. Pa. 1972).

101 Id. at 1395.

102 Alphas Planned Big Eastern Convention, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 31.

103 Doings During the Eastern Regional, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 32.

104 The Education Foundation One Million Dollar Education Endowment Fund, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1974, at 17.

105 Id. at 16.

106 Delta Omicron Initiates A Black Counseling  Program, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 23.

107 Walter Washington, The General President Speaks, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 2.

108 Nu Chapter Established Paul Robeson Scholarship Fund, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 46.

109 Wisconsin Alphas…Newsletter, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 46.

110 Epsilon Iota Lambda, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 47.

111 Gamma Mu…Livingston College, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 38.

112 Edward McPhatter, From the Fraternal Bond at Eta Omicron, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 46.

113 Ronnie Carter and Donald Cunnigen, Gamma Upsilon Sponsors Activities for Community Enrichment, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1974, at 10.

114 Martin Washington, Alpha Library Committee, Inc., 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 54.

115 Salute to a Chapter President, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 27.

116 Sidney A. Jones III, Xi Lambda Highlights, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1973, at 8; Boston Chapter Hosts Black College Graduates at Job Seminar, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 30‐ 31.

117 Zeta Epsilon Lambda Chapter, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 18.

118 W.E. Lindsey, Jr., Memphis Alphas Honors Three Memphis State University Stars, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 51.

119 Delta Gamma Lambda Scholarship and Pageantry, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1973, at 31.

120 Theta Psi Lambda, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1973, at 34.

121 Joseph C. Gunnell, Sr., Epsilon Lambda Outstanding Chapter of Alphadom, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 40.

122 John P. Rice, Alphas in the Leadership Role, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 40‐41.

123 Iota Alpha Lambda Chapter, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 44.

124 Beta Beta Lambda…’Come to Miami in ’75’, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1974, at 12.

125 President of Kappa Epsilon Lambda, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 24.

126 Brother John Louis Wilson, FAIA, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 44.

127 Brother Haley Bell, D.D.S. – Detroit, Mich. Pioneer in Broadcasting Industry, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1973, at 55.

128 Brother Dunbar Simms McLaurin, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 53.

129 Bill Would Add Policy Game to State legal Gambling List, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 35.

130 Brother Joseph T. Taylor Drafts Desegregation Plan for Indianapolis Public Schools, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1973, at 5.

131 Brother Belford V. Lawson Elected President of YMCA National Council, 59 THE  SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 47.

132 University of Michigan Confers Doctorate Degree on Francis A. Kornegay, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 36.

133 Gary C. Jones, Brother Edward Rodgers Is First Black County Judge, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 41.

134 Alexton O. Mallory, Andrew L. Jefferson, Jr. on Special Committee in Texas, 59 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1973, at 43.

135 EEOC v. Cronin, 370 F. Supp. 579 (E.D. Mo. 1973).

136 EEOC v. American Tel. & Tel. Co., 365 F. Supp. 1105, 1124 (E.D. Pa. 1973).

137 State v. Dickerson, 298 A.2d 761 (Del. 1973).

138 WESLEY, supra note 1, at 538.

139 Id. at 541.

140 The New Emerging Black Middle‐Class is Cold and Heartless, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 8.

141 The General President Speaks, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1974, at 2.

142 Alpha’s in Wilberforce, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1974, at 14.

143 Resolution on Support of the N.A.A.C.P., 60 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1974, at 18.

144 Reflections of Delta Kappa Chapter, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1974, at 44.

145 Chapter News, 61 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1975, at 32.

146 Id. at 33.

147 Delta Phi in Community Action, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1974, at 12.

148 Chapter News: U of Maryland, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 26.

149 Chapter News: Eastern Illinoi U, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 27.

150 Albert T. Reliford, Bridging the Gap, 61 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1975, at 37.

151 Chapter News, supra note 151, at 36.

152 Memphis Alpha Delta Lambda Chapter Enthusiastic Goodfellows, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1974, at 29.

153 Chapter News, supra note 154, at 30.

154 Hanley J. Norment, Suburban Maryland Chapter Paces Ahead, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1974, at 41.

155 Chapter News: Michigan, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 26.

156 Chapter News: Connecticut, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 25.

157 Newsline, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1974, at 16.

158 Brother George H. Brown, Jr. Elected President of Memphis Board of Education, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1974, at 29.

159 Southern Regional, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1974, at 16.

160 Focus, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 8.

161 Alpha’s on the Move, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 22.

162 The Sky is the Limit…Congressman Harold E. Ford, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1974, at 6.

163 Alphas on the Move, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1974, at 22.

164 Charles Willie, Sex, Racism, and the Church, 60 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1974, at 13.

165 Ellison v. Rock Hill Printing & Finishing Co., 64 F.R.D. 415 (D.S.C. 1974).

166 Glass v. Phila. Elec. Co., 64 F.R.D. 559 (E.D. Pa. 1974).

167 WESLEY, supra note 1, at 541.

168 ROBERT L. HARRIS, THE HISTORY OF ALPHA PHI ALPHA: A TRADITION OF LEADERSHIP AND

SERVICE 542 (2014).

169 Id.

170 Id. at 543.

171 Id. at 543.

172 Chapter News, 61 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1975, at 20.

173 Id. at 17.

174 Id.

175 Id. at 19.

176 Id. at 21.

177 Chapter News, supra note 154, at 31.

178 Id. at 30.

179 Chapter News, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1976, at 53.

180 Id. at 59.

181 Chapter News, supra note 182, at 24.

182 ZZɅ Sponsors Senior Citizens’ Center, 61 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1975, at 25.

183 Newsline, 61 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1975, at 20.

184 Chapter News, supra note 189, at 59.

185 Id. at 46.

186 Id. at 47.

187 Id. at 50.

188 Id. at 56.

189 Id. at 56‐57.

190 Chapter News, supra note 154, at 28.

191 Id. at 31.

192 Id. at 27.

193 Chapter News, supra note 189, at 47.

194 Secretary of Transportation Brother William T. Coleman, Jr., 61 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1975, at 10.

195 J. Clinton Hoggard, Eulogy, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1976, at 15.

196 Brother Lester B. Granger, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1976, at 27.

197 State ex rel. Hall v. Camper, 347 A.2d 137 (Del. 1975).

198 Rodgers v. U.S. Steel Corp., 508 F.2d 152 (3d Cir. 1975).

199 WESLEY, supra note 1, at 545.

200 Id. at 537.

201 1976, Alpha’s International Year, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1976, at 21.

202 A Public Policy Statement of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc., 62 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1976, at 18‐19.

203 Herman E. Glaze, LD‐CE Workshop, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1976, at 8.

204 Newsline, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1977, at 9‐10.

205 College Scene, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1976, at 16.

206 Chapter News, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1976, at 44, 46; Chapter News, 62 THE SPHINX, no.

3, 1976, at 52.

207 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 46.

208 Id. at 47.

209 Id. at 47‐48.

210 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 55.

211 William Agee, College Scene, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1976, at 8.

212 Chapter News, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1978, at 28.

213 Chapter News, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1977, at 35.

214 Chapter News, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1977, at 39.

215 Chapter News, supra note 224, at 29.

216 Chapter News, supra note 226, at 38.

217 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 44.

218 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 46.

219 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 54.

220 Chapter News, supra note 226, at 41.

221 Id. at 52.

222 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 50.

223 Chapter News, supra note 226, at 38.

224 William Ross, Jr., Educational News, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1976, at 22.

225 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 51.

226 Chapter News, supra note 224, at 30.

227 Newsline, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1976, at 17‐18.

228 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 45.

229 Id. at 46.

230 Chapter News, supra note 226, at 40.

231 Id. at 41.

232 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 55.

233 Chapter News, supra note 226, at 49‐50.

234 Chapter News, supra note 216, at 43.

235 Id. at 49.

236 Chapter News, supra note 226, at 40.

237 There Goes an Alpha Man, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1977, at 4.

238 Young Accepts United Nations’ Post, 62 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1976, at 9.

239 Focus: General President James R. Williams Appointed U.S. District Attorney, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1978, at 25.

240 J.J. Johnson, Focus, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1977, at 14.

241 David E. Brown, College Scene, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1977, at 30.

242 Marshall v. Elec. Hose & Rubber Co., 413 F. Supp. 663 (D. Del. 1976).

243 HARRIS, supra note 178, at 1.

244 Id. at 2‐3.

245 Id. at 6.

246 Id.

247 Id. at 3.

248 Id.

249 Id.

250 Id. at 6.

251 Id. at 26.

252 Id. at 8. 253 Id. at 8‐9. 254 Id. at 9.

255 Id. at 7. 256 Id. at 7‐8. 257 Id. at 8.

258 William Ross Jr., A Case for an Education Committee in Each Chapter, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1977, at 28.

259 Chapter News, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1977, at 32.

260 James R. Williams, The General President Speaks, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1978, at 2.

261 The 71st Anniversary Convention, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1977, at 17.

262 Chapter News, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1977, at 38.

263 Chapter News, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1978, at 38; Chapter News, supra note 274, at 44.

264 Chapter News, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1977, at 49.

265 Chapter News, supra note 271, at 30.

266 Chapter News, supra note 275, at 33.

267 Chapter News, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1978, at 37.

268 Id. at 44.

269 Chapter News, supra note 274, at 41.

270 Chapter News, supra note 271, at 36.

271 Chapter News, supra note 275, at 33.

272 Chapter News, supra note 274, at 48.

273 Chapter News, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1978, at 32.

274 Chapter News, supra note 274, at 36.

275 Chapter News, supra note 277, at 49.

276 Chapter News, supra note 271, at 31.

277 Chapter News, supra note 277, at 42.

278 Chapter News, supra note 274, at 39.

279 Chapter News, supra note 280, at 36.

280 Chapter News, supra note 274, at 40.

281 Alphas on the Move, 63 THE SPHINX, no. 3, 1977, at 40.

282 Chapter News, supra note 277, at 52.

283 Alphas on the Move, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1978, at 31.

284 Chapter News, supra note 271, at 36.

285 Chapter News, supra note 275, at 42.

286 Chapter News, supra note 277, at 43.

287 Id. at 57.

288 There Goes an Alpha Man, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1978, at 5.

289 Focus: The Hatchers – Love Unlimited, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1978, at 18.

290 James R. Williams, Hubert H. Humphrey: A Tribute, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1978, at 8.

291 Laurence T. Young, A Lofty Oak Has Fallen, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1978, at 11.

292 Evans v. Buchanan, 555 F.2d 373 (3d Cir. 1977).

293 Washington Review, 65 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1979, at 9.

294 HARRIS, supra note 178, at 15‐16.

295 Chavis v. State of North Carolina, 637 F.2d 213 (4th Cir. 1980).

296 HARRIS, supra note 178, at 16.

297 Id.

298 Id. at 10.

299 Id. at 10‐11.

300 Id. at 11.

301 Id. at 15.

302 Id.

303 Id.

304 Id.

305 Id.

306 Id.

307 Id. at 16.

308 Id. at 14.

309 Id.

310 Id. at 17.

311 Chapter News, 64 THE SPHINX, no. 4, 1978, at 36.

312 Id. at 39.

313 Id. at 42.

314 Chapter News, 65 THE SPHINX, no. 1, 1979, at 37.

315 Id. at 40.

316 Chapter News, 65 THE SPHINX, no. 2, 1979, at 50.

317 Id. at 52.

318 Chapter News, supra note 324, at 28.

319 Id. at 34.

320 Chapter News, supra 280, at 46.