The 1920s

 In early 1920, the Fraternity prepared to launch its Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign. This program was to be implemented by each chapter and, ideally, brother. They were expected to distribute educational pamphlets at high school and large community, educational mass meeting. The Fraternity measured its impact by making calls to ascertain the number of students reached and the efficiency of the program.1 The Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign began in earnest in the first week of June 1920.2 Literature was printed, with Brother Clement A. Morgan of Pi Chapter (Case Western-Reserve University) bearing the initial expenses. Following the completion of the Twelfth General Convention in Chicago, Illinois, the Fraternity’s Commission on Graduate Work and Public Affairs completed the principle task of conducting the Go-to-High-School, Go- to-College campaign and completed a survey and enumeration of every Alpha Phi Alpha member.3

During the week of June six to the twelfth, the Go-to-High- School, Go-to-College campaign took center stage in the Fraternity’s national campaign. The campaign’s committee hoped that the message would reach every high school and as many communities as possible either by personal contact or through distribution of educational leaflets, letters to pastors, meetings, conferences, and interviews.4 General President Lucius McGee pushed the campaign by sending letters that urged that “[e]ach chapter is hereby called on to function in this movement. In this effort, we must not shoot in the air, but accomplish results. No feeble effort will be effective, but each chapter must put its part of the program over with interest and drive.”5 The results of the Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign were immediately successful, as nearly all chapters responded. In 1920, at the Thirteenth General Convention held in Kansas City, Missouri, the General Convention decided that the national Go-to-High-School, Go- to-College campaign would continue for the next five years, with maximum efforts devoted to the campaign.6 Additionally, each individual chapter was to carry on a campaign in its area that was best suited to local conditions.7

In The Sphinx, brothers like B.L. Taylor sought to encourage African American youth to aspire to go to college. As he noted, during a time of crisis in the country, the educated African American man must be well-equipped to solve industrial and economic problems. In his estimation, while obtaining knowledge in the methods of industry, commercial values, and enterprise, the African American community had to encourage its youth to stay in school by creating the proper public sentiment. However, young men who dropped out of school often found unsatisfactory work or ended up jobless.8 Brothers throughout the country were implementing the Fraternity’s vision. For example, Sigma Chapter (Harvard University), worked toward community uplift in and around Boston by “furnishing the various social working organizations and churches with speakers for different occasions.”9 In addition to becoming involved with the Soldiers and Sailors Hut by sponsoring a forum, they also hoped to stimulate interest in business among African American men, as they believed that “inter-racial relations between the Negro and the white man will improve in proportion as the Negroes’ economic condition is advanced.”10

By 1921, General President Simeon S. Booker had pushed to advance the Fraternity’s ideals in three ways. First, he called for a renewed loyalty to the Fraternity and its chapters on the part of members.11 Second, given new Fraternity policies, there became an increased focus on selecting the best men in every community for membership.12 Third, and more importantly, with regard to Go-to- High-School, Go-to-College Week, General President Booker called for members to be involved and submit ideas. He also hoped to offer twenty-five scholarships.13 Even more, given a new Fraternity policy, alumni members could now join professional fraternities. This allowed, in some respects, the Fraternity to broaden its influence by having Fraternity members who worked with other fraternities in order to better the community.14

With the second annual Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign underway, following the General Convention, the Commission of Graduate Work and Public Affairs sent out a letter with a slogan stating, “We Must Reach One Million Pupils.”15 In addition,  the Commission distributed a folder with inspirational images and quotes, along with informational tables that showed the difference in wages between those who stayed in school and those who left school. Furthermore, General President Booker issued a statement that backed the slogan and set forth another goal:

We are on the verge of our great educational drive. The signal has been given, the slogan adopted, get your grip and with a united, steady dead pull, win. One hundred thousand homes must be reached and one million youth must be inspired to stay in school. The opportunity is at hand.16

The movement again received national attention, in particular that of President Warren G. Harding. In a letter penned to Brother Norman L. McGhee, Harding wrote that the results of the campaign of 1920 seemed to justify the repetition of the efforts and that there was still a great need to reduce illiteracy among African Americans.17 All said, Alpha Phi Alpha’s message reached far and wide, as Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College messages were found in schools, churches, newspapers, and public assemblies; by placards in stores and on street cars; and by individual conferences with parents and students.18 Among the chapters who implemented the program, Beta Chapter (Howard University) hoped to reach “52 colored public schools and 18,000 colored school children.”19 Delta Lambda Chapter (Baltimore, Maryland) expressed a desire to increase service and civic engagement, along with a desire to do more for the Go-to-High-School, Go-to- College movement.20 Similarly, Epsilon Lambda Chapter (St. Louis, Missouri) expressed a desire to do a lot for the Go-to-High-School, Go- to-College campaign, along with the hopes of raising $1,000 for the scholarship fund.21

At its 1921 General Convention, the Fraternity made Jewel Callis’ relative, noted abolitionist Frederick Douglas, a posthumous Honorary Member of the Fraternity.22 In a speech, General President Simeon S. Booker noted the inspiration and lessons Douglas could offer to Fraternity members through his work.23 In 1922, Alpha Phi Alpha members traveled to Brother Frederick Douglas’s home as a sort of pilgrimage.24 Whether intended or not, Brother Douglas’ Honorary Membership served as a backdrop for the Fraternity’s racial uplift thrust. For example, in one article in the February issue of The Sphinx, it called for fraternities and sororities to meet once every four years to discuss things such as academics and racial policy.25 Just months before the General Convention, General President Booker, called for a program devoted to civic and economic affairs in order to not only serve the group, but all people.26 In the December issue of The Sphinx, another article called for an African American national bank in Harlem.27 Similar sentiments had been expressed months before, in the

October issue of The Sphinx. Brothers like Benjamin T. Johnson articulated a view of racial progress as viewed through the lens of economic uplift. In a piece in The Sphinx, he noted that African American’s growth as a community was directly correlated with African American business success.28 He pointed out that the African American’s status at the time in the world of business was remarkable when one considered that world trade was several centuries older than the experience of African America’s industrial life.29 He went on to argue that the change that was necessary for African Americans would only be made possible by changing the management of the affairs of  the race. He predicted that fifty years in the future, the natural development of the race would be led by African American businessmen, namely, the banker, the broker, the manufacturer, and the economist. He believed that this would bring about greater material and economic prosperity for the race.30

Fraternity members were urged to remember their importance within Alpha Phi Alpha past their graduation, particularly with regard to their ability to execute the Fraternity’s national mission.31 It seems that many members remembered, as the Go-to-High-School, Go-to- College campaign was a success in 1922. It was estimated that forty-two chapters reached over two-million children with their message.32 Gamma Chapter (Virginia Union University) mentioned big plans for the Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign with the hopes of reaching both men and women.33 Kappa Chapter (Ohio State University) called for the strengthening of the Go-to-High-School, Go- to-College campaign.34 Phi (Ohio University), Tau (University of Illinois), and Alpha Gamma (Brown University/ Johnson & Wales) chapters all mentioned their desire to make 1992’s Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign the greatest one yet.35 Beta Lambda Chapter (Kansas City, Kansas) renewed efforts and committees for the Go-to- High-School, Go-to-College campaign. In 1922, they ultimately reached close to 2,000 students.36 Gamma Lambda Chapter (Detroit, Michigan), during their Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College week, began a scholarship fund that they hope to continue to grow for the benefit of needy and worthy students.37

In 1923, members of the Fraternity were making advances in the area of economic empowerment. One member was elected president of the Douglas National Bank of Chicago, the first African American National Bank in the country.38 Another, E.C. Brown, established and organized three African American banks—Crown Savings Bank in Newport News, Virginia, Metropolitan Bank and Trust Co. in Norfolk, Virginia, and Brown and Stevens Bank in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.39 Articles in The Sphinx called for the Fraternity to rise to new heights vis-à-vis racial uplift. One article called for the Fraternity to help its less fortunate kinsmen in the South. They also urged their brothers to truly see the severity of the southern situation.40 Another called for the reorganization of the Fraternity’s national body, a revision and change of the advisory council, a permanent National Headquarters, an educational and service program for local and national purposes, and a scholarship fund.41

That same year, the Go-to-High-School,  Go-to-College program was pressed vigorously by the Fraternity and its chapters.42 In 1923, the Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign continued to grow and remained the highest priority of the Fraternity. The motto for the campaign was “The Future of Our Race is Dependent Upon the Education of Our Boys and Girls.”43 Eta Chapter (Columbia University) was particularly invested in the program.44 Mu Chapter (University of Minnesota) undertook to offer a scholarship, amounting to a quarter of the tuition of their school, in their Go-To-High-School, Go-To-College campaign.45 The campaign was not only implemented by collegiate chapters, but also by Fraternity alumni living in different parts of the country.46 In his remarks in the June 1923 issue of The Sphinx, General President Booker informed its readers that the annual campaign set a high-water mark. All of the chapters had expressed interest in the program and worked hard to integrate it into their chapters’ activities. The “stay in school” program was carried to over 3,000,000 people during the drive. It spread the value of education throughout the African American community.47 Elsewhere, chapters were advancing initiatives locally and nationally. For example, Tau Chapter (University of Illinois) hosted a community forum where a lecture was given on issues that were soon to be up for vote in the area.48 Alpha Lambda Chapter (Louisville, Kentucky) planned to support the N.A.A.C.P. by becoming a dues-paying member.49 Special attention was brought to Theta Lambda Chapter’s (Dayton, Ohio) educational activities, because they worked year round on the campaign. Brother W.E.B. Dubois gave a speech to over 100 faculty and 9,300 students at their Go-to-High- School, Go-to-College event.50

In December of 1923, at the Sixteenth General Convention, the Fraternity pledged financial support to the N.A.A.C.P. for “its determined fight for the passage of the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill.”51

Within the following months, it was also accepted to participate in the Negro Sandhedrin conference on February 11, 1924.52 The purpose of the conference was for various organizations, concerned with the welfare of the race, to develop a unified plan or harmonious procedure. They wanted to address racial relations as a whole, including religious, political, education, industrial, economic, and social aspects.53 Ultimately, the group convened to address the state of the race. One Fraternity member said of the conference: “The time has now come when the Negro must think for himself and speak for himself in terms of his own understanding of his own condition.”54 Alpha Phi Alpha was proud to send ten delegates to the convention.55

The year 1924 saw Alpha Phi Alpha also continuing its Go-To- High-School, Go-To-College campaign. It was becoming ever-clearer that the campaign sought to make African Americans much more the masters of their own fate. As one author penned in The Sphinx, African Americans had been in contact with Europeans for four and a half centuries and had not been permitted to develop the higher qualities of other races.56 Since arrival on American soil, African American’s condition had not changed. However, they had patiently begun to ascend the road of education. Starting with participation in the Civil War, proving his ability as a soldier and loyalty as a patriot, African Americans had begun to accumulate property, build schools and churches, enter into the white schools, and ultimately prove that they were of merit.57 It was noted that the distinction in higher education was also a growing area for African Americans—producing scholars in nearly every field.58 Accordingly, the underlying message of the Go-to- High-School, Go-to-College campaign was to urge colored youth to take advantage of educational opportunity, for the making of a better man because the future of the African American race was in their own hands, no longer those of the white philanthropist.59 As the campaign gained more momentum, the Fraternity pushed to extend the program and make it more far-reaching. The goal was to reach the masses in a push aided by the increased infrastructure offered by the national campaign.60

Again, almost all chapters’ reports in The Sphinx noted an increased effort in regards to each and potency of their individual execution of the campaign.61 For example, the chapters in Atlanta, Georgia (Eta Lambda, Alpha Rho, and Alpha Pi) created an essay contest with the topic “Why Go to College” and engaged all senior English teachers in the area to have their students participate.62

Upsilon Chapter (University of Kansas) sent over fifty letters to editors in the states of Oklahoma and Kansas for publicity for the Go-to-High- School, Go-to-College campaign. They also asked their alumni to hold meetings and give lectures to students in their areas. Furthermore, they wrote handwritten letters to high school graduates encouraging them to attend college.63

Chapters were not only focused on the Go-to-High-School, Go- to-College but also broader discussions of race. At Epsilon Chapter (University of Michigan), Brother Jesse E. Moorland, a prominent worker at the YMCA, was the first African American to speak before the University of Michigan since Booker T. Washington. Moorland’s speech was on, “Our Greatest Challenge.”64 Zeta Chapter (Yale University) Brother I.N. Porter lectured at the Masonic Club about “Racial Impressions.”65 At Tau Chapter, a series of articles were published in The Daily Illini regarding racial equality. The first article discussed the important of education for African American students, and how education could increase their social standing. The article pointed out that people are a product of how they’re raised and what they’re exposed to. A response, written by a Mr. Sabin, then detailed why social equality is a bad idea, and why the writer believed that it should not happen and will not happen. A response to Mr. Sabin detailed his ignorance in all things related to African Americans and their lives. Alpha Phi Alpha members critiqued Mr. Sabin’s lack of intelligence and his prejudice.66

By 1925, other African American fraternities and sororities began to follow Alpha Phi Alpha’s lead in focusing on educational uplift in the communities they served. Specifically, there were reports of organizations following Alpha Phi Alpha’s lead in organizing philanthropic events similar to Go-To-High-School, Go-To-College.67 Within the Fraternity, there was also discussion of not simply providing disenfranchised African Americans with a proverbial fish but, rather, elevating their consciousness so that they might fish for themselves and participate in their own liberation. Brother V.E. Daniels, Dean of Wiley College, wrote in The Sphinx on the need for such consciousness- raising. He wrote that the opinion forming of a group is that group’s syndicated effort to figure out the next step, seeing its way into a dubious future.68 Since facts take so long to establish, most people’s actions must be based on opinion. The problem with opinion forming amongst African Americans is that they are a nation within a nation. Furthermore, there is great variation within the group itself, and

African Americans had been cut off from their former cultures and from their own tribes.69 Accordingly, the problem with African Americans, Brother Daniels wrote, was the need to make individual African Americans racially conscious. Retracing the history of this effort, he noted individuals such as David Walker and Frederick Douglas who spread their publications to increase race consciousness.70 Looking to other institutions, Daniels’ identified the African American church as central in shaping race consciousness and thought that they could, again, along with the African American press, be instrumental in such an effort.71 In the June issue of The Sphinx, one member detailed the importance of athletics for breaking down racial barriers. The article explained how, sometimes, white students did not know how to engage African American students, but could learn.72 Another article detailed opposition to the African American mammy imagery and called for memorials in Washington, D.C. dedicated to the services rendered by African Americans.73

While Alpha Phi Alpha was focused on raising the sights of African Americans, Fraternity members remained diligent in their work. For example, Epsilon Chapter had Brother W.E.B. DuBois speak on “Africa and America.”74 Delta Lambda Chapter (Baltimore, Maryland) was involved with different civic organizations, including National Negro Health Week, the N.A.A.C.P., and the National Urban League.75 In the Midwest, Theta Lambda Chapter (Dayton, Ohio) joined with other organizations in the city around racial segregation in public schools.76 Similarly, the Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign went well in Evanston and Chicago, Illinois. The brothers spoke in schools and churches, and they also held various other meetings. Furthermore, many newspapers “gave news items and editorials” on the matter. Many leading ministries in the communities offered their support. Lastly, Brother W.E.B. Dubois gave a speech on education and the journey through life.77

At the close of 1925, the message coming out of the General Convention in Detroit, Michigan, was that education, hard work, and mindful-association with others would be the key to African American uplift.78 The idea of the “first African American to do…” had been hailed as the hero of the race, the example to aspire to.79 However, in order for the race to move past being confined to themselves, they had to “accept nothing but the world’s best” as the standard, because otherwise complacency and lack of desire would have spawned a lack of innovation and stalled forward momentum.80

By 1926, Alpha Phi Alpha had made an impact throughout the country. Despite the advancements, there was still a great need and opportunity for service since the birth of the organization.81 The Go-to- High-School, Go-to-College campaign was thriving, but the needs of the African American community were growing.82 The Fraternity was not only grappling with its duty to mankind but also looking for new ways to support the community, including providing scholarships for those who had trouble paying for their education.83 In fact, in reflecting on the need for this initiative, it was noted that Greek-letter fraternities became common among African American students for the same reason they were among other races. These organizations were the only way they could organize to carry out their business. Alpha Phi Alpha was founded on the principles of service, and the question: “What can we do to make our people rise?”84 They noticed that many African Americans were not graduating, and from this came the Go-to-High- School, Go-to-College campaign. Ultimately, the Fraternity gained community support from religious leaders, educators both African American and white, and even presidents.85 The movement reached many people in places where education wasn’t stressed. It also worked with states and churches to raise citizenship and moral standards through education. Because of this movement, many students went to school.86 And the chapters continued to be the point of implementation. At Epsilon Chapter, the Go-to-High-School, Go-to- College campaign had community turnout and involvement with churches closing their usual club events. It was a record turnout.87 Alpha Beta Chapter (Talladega College) reached over 2,500 people during its Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign.88 In Chicago, Theta (University of Chicago) and Xi Lambda Chapters worked together on the Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign. They had Brother Bradley Cyrus speak on “Our Educational Campaign.” Professor Miller spoke on “The Higher Education and the Negro.”89 At Alpha Lambda Chapter (Louisville, Kentucky), Brother F.B. Livingston gave a speech called “Why to Go to College” for Go-to-High-School, Go-to- College campaign.90 And Theta Lambda Chapter (Dayton, Ohio) carried the Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College campaign message to 15,000 people.91

By years-end, The Sphinx included some early contemplation about working across organizational lines for the betterment of the African American community. For example, the December issue of The Sphinx included an editorial from Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, concerning their desire to have a pan-fraternal convention to discuss a service project that might be executed across multiple different Negro Greek organizations.92 In the same issue, Brother John E. Oakes, Alpha Pi Chapter (Atlanta University), wrote about a need to focus on economics in the African American community.93 In the article, he wrote that economic prosperity is what causes a race or a nation to be respected by other races and nations.94 Economic prosperity is responsible for the success of a people in nearly all lines of endeavor, because it keeps the “wolf” of poverty away, allowing talents to develop unhindered.95 In his assessment, African Americans would accomplish more when the race had achieved a state of economic prosperity. He went on to note that a large part of the suffering economic condition of the African American was accredited to the type of instruction that is given in the African American schools.96 As such, he called for African American teachers to not only address illiteracy but also to focus on commerce and finance in order to produce more businessmen.97 According to Brother Oakes, the race needed lawyers in the courtroom, dentists and doctors to safeguard health, but it would be through businessmen that the race as a whole would make real strides.98

The Fraternity continued onward and upward with its education initiatives in 1927. For example, the Fraternity, generally, hoped to offer the Life Insurance and Endowment Plan in order to help more people with their education.99 Locally, chapters like  Beta (Howard University) received cooperation from the Board of Education for their Go-to-High-School, Go-to-College work.100 However, the Fraternity, its leadership and members, called for greater engagement around issues of race. General President Raymond W. Cannon called for all like organizations to consider themselves in one union for the purpose of uplifting the race and developing the ability to serve.101 Noted historian and Alpha Phi Alpha Brother Rayford W. Logan urged Fraternity members to annually observe Negro History Week to show that “Alpha Phi Alpha realizes the necessity for such study and officially endorses the annual effort to stimulate, foster, and perhaps revive enthusiasm for this praiseworthy endeavor.”102 In the June 1927 issue of The Sphinx, Brother Logan noted that Brother W.E.B. Dubois advocated for a pan-Africa meeting to discuss race relations. As such, Alpha Phi Alpha planned to send delegates to the next Pan-African Congress meeting, in order to help bring more awareness to racial issues in America.103

The Sphinx was also used to bring other issues of race to the consciousness of Alpha Phi Alpha members during this period. In one article, an editorial originally published in the Chicago Defender in response to the Annual Formal of the Theta Chapter, the author claimed that there was a growing tendency on the part of African American men and women towards self-segregation, manifested in “college activities and social functions.”104 The author speculated that the separation was based on a self-conscious attitude, stemming from an inferiority complex that made African Americans uncomfortable in relationships with the white race. He went on to say that there was no sane argument against the intermingling of the races in school and college activities, and social functions because the races will forever have to coexist and depend upon one another. The only way to meet the uncomfortable feeling was to mingle with the people that cause the uncomfortable feeling.105

1 THE SPHINX, May 1920, at 15.

2  CHARLES H. WESLEY, THE HISTORY  OF ALPHA PHI ALPHA: A DEVELOPMENT  IN COLLEGE  LIFE 124 (16th ed. 1996).

3 Id. at 125-26.

4 Id. at 127.

5 Id.

6 Id. at 129-30.

7 Id. at 30.

8 B. L. Taylor, After Graduation – What? (90% of Our Children Drop Out of School After the Eighth grade- A Work for the College Graduate), THE SPHINX, May 1920, at 12-13.

9 THE SPHINX, May 1920, at 27.

10 Id.

11 THE SPHINX, Feb. 1921, at 3

12 Id.

13 Id.

14 Id. at 4.

15 WESLEY, supra note 2, at 135.

16 Id.

17 Id. at 135-36.

18 Id. at 136.

19 THE SPHINX, supra note 11, at 13.

20 Id. at 21.

21 Id.

22 THE SPHINX, Feb. 1922, at 5

23 Douglas We’re Here, THE SPHINX, Feb. 1922, at 9

24 At Anacostia, THE SPHINX, Apr. 1922, at 4

25 One Conclave of Collegians, THE SPHINX, Feb. 1922, at 6.

26 General President Issues Advance Notice of Legislative Program for the 15th Convention, Nov. 1922, at 1.

27 Negro Business Today, THE SPHINX, Dec. 1922, at 6-7.

28 Benjamin T. Johnson, Negro Business the Bedrock of Progress, THE SPHINX, Oct. 1922, at 3-4.

29 Id.

30 Id.

31 What Do I Mean To APA, THE SPHINX, Nov. 1922, at 4.

32 THE SPHINX, May 1922, at 9.

33 THE SPHINX, Apr. 1922, at 8.

34 THE SPHINX, supra note 32, at 12.

35 THE SPHINX, supra note 33, at 10-11.

36 Id. at 7.

37 THE SPHINX, Oct. 1922, at 9.

38 THE SPHINX, Oct. 1923, at 21.

39 Id. at 23.

40 APA and the Negro Migration, THE SPHINX, Oct. 1923, at 26.

41 Important Notices of the Convention, THE SPHINX, Dec. 1923, at 4.

42 The Go-To High School, Go-To College Movement, THE SPHINX, Apr. 1923, at 5, 42-43.

43 WESLEY, supra note 2, at 151.

44 THE SPHINX, Apr. 1923, at 10.

45 THE SPHINX, June 1923, at 39.

46 Id. at 49.

47 Id. at 44-45.

48 THE SPHINX, supra note 44, at 18.

49 Id. at 30.

50 THE SPHINX, Feb. 1923, at 28.

51 THE SPHINX, Feb. 1924, at 10; WESLEY, supra note 2, at 153.

52 The Negro Sandhedrin, THE SPHINX, Feb. 1924, at 18; see also The Negro Sanhedrin, THE SPHINX, Apr. 1924, at 11-12.

53 THE SPHINX, supra note 52.

54 Id.

55 Id.

56 The “Go to High School, Go to College” Movement, THE SPHINX, Apr. 1924, at 5-9.

57 Id.

58 Id.

59 Id.

60 Id. at 9.

61 Id. at 32.

62 Id.

63 THE SPHINX, June 1924, at 10.

64 Id. at 3.

65 Id. at 5.

66 “Go-To-High-School-and-College” Movement Brings More Talks, THE SPHINX, Oct. 1924, at 22-25, 29.

67 THE SPHINX, Apr. 1925, at 6.

68 V. E. Daniels, Opinion-Forming Among Negro Americans, THE SPHINX, Apr. 1925, at 6- 7.

69 Id.

70 Id.