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rQkn9C 9C content.xmlGender & Sexuality: A Transnational Anthology from 1690 to 1990Gender & Sexuality: A Transnational Anthology from 1690 to 1990Wake Forest University Students, HST 114/WGS 377, Fall 2019Winston-Salem, North CarolinaGender & Sexuality: A Transnational Anthology from 1690 to 1990 by the Contributors is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgementsHST 114/WGS 377 Students, Fall 2019PowerWitch Hunting or Women Hunting?: A Look at the Historical Subordination of WomenKarly BruderWoman Sculptors in Relation to Antislavery and Women's Rights MovementsSahara WillisLaundry: Eroticism in Mundane ActivityOlivia ThonsonEliza Burt Gamble’s Refutations to Darwinian Theory of Evolution and the Societal Norm of Male SuperiorityJackie DeQuattroSex, Drugs and Feminism: The Punk Adventures of Kathy AckerCollin CheungGender RolesLife Beyond WidowhoodCaroline FahringerDegrading Women Through Language and Imagery Within LIFE MagazineMia DolanAnalysis of Women in Wartime AdvertisementsMariana Rocha-Goldberg"There's more to Bunnyhood than stuffing bosoms."Carly WarrenA Look at Esquire: How Advertisements Have Been Used to Construct Gender StandardsFrancesca MilitoLike a Virgin Menstruating for the Very First TimeMikayla ThomasGender Roles Across BordersRebecca RodriguesGender StereotypesThe African American Women and Her Labor in Antebellum South SlaveryHailey MorrisonA Fair Break From the Straight WorldCharlotte FanningA Gay BibliographyLGBTQ History Made by America’s LibrariansMiranda FioreFemale Portrayal in Life Magazine AdsAmelia BakerReproductive RightsBirth Control has never looked so good: A Revolutionary PeriodCatelin MagelMargaret Sanger's Debate on Birth ControlLindsay RuckerWomen Made Nation: Debates on Reproductive Rights in Puerto Rico in the 20th CenturyCarla Peña-VegaEducational InstitutionsTitle IX: The Fight for Female Equality in AthleticsKate CitronGay Academic UnionVirginia SancesTitle IX: Failure to PerformBella ScottSex Education from the Catholic ChurchBailey Pellissier“I’m on the list – are you?” Homosexual Purges on College CampusesRiver CookGender & Sexuality: A Transnational Anthology from 1690 to 1990 is a collaborative project created by the students of Dr. Yarfitz’s class, Gender and Sexuality in World History, in fall 2019 at Wake Forest University. This book is the cumulative product of a semester of research where students selected a specific primary source and situated that source within its historical context. Our hope is that future students in this class will continue to expand on the sources in this volume.While the class is centered around world history, our sources are primarily from the United States due to accessibility, however we have included a few global sources, and hope that the global scope of this project can be expanded upon in later editions. Our sources range from the late 1600s to the 21st century. The book is divided into five main topics: power, gender roles, gender stereotypes, reproductive rights, and education.The first section focuses on power and explores the historic power dynamics in gender formations. The second section on gender roles presents roles throughout history using the analytical tools established during our time in this class. The third section on gender stereotypes observes stereotypes in multiple facets, including portrayal and the movements that fought against them. Section four explores the reproductive rights revolution and its pioneers, and the last section engages with the approaches that educational institutions take in the context of gender and sexuality, and how that places students in precarity, requiring forms of self advocacy.Signed,Amelia Baker Karly Bruder Collin Cheung Kate Citron River Cook Jackie DeQuattro Mai Dolan Caroline Fahringer Charlotte Fanning Miranda Fiore Catelin Magel Francesca Milito Hailey Morrison Bailey Pellissier Carla Peña-Vega Mariana Rocha-Goldberg Rebecca Rodrigues Lindsay Rucker Bella Scott Mikayla Thomas Olivia Thonson Carly Warren Sahara WillisCover art by Bailey Pellissier and Rebecca Rodrigues, copyright 2019.AcknowledgementsHST 114/WGS 377 Students, Fall 2019As we conclude our work on this Pressbook, we wish to acknowledge the mentors that have guided us along in this process. We especially want to thank Dr. Mir Yarfitz, Kyle Denlinger, and Kathy Shields, each of whom dedicated their time and skillset to help us create a piece of work that has exceeded our expectations. This journey would not have been possible without them!PART IPowerChapter 1Witch Hunting or Women Hunting?: A Look at the Historical Subordination of WomenKarly BruderIntroductionThroughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Americas and Europe experienced an era of witch-hysteria that resulted in the accusation of millions of individuals, hundreds of thousands of which ended in executions.2One of the most notable and fervent “Witch-Hunts” occurred in Salem, Massachusetts, where over two hundred individuals were tried, twenty of which ended in executions, beginning with the execution of Bridget Bishop.4Witches at this time were considered “people who practiced witchcraft, using magic spells and calling upon spirits for help or to bring about change. Most witches were thought to be pagans doing the Devil’s work”.2 The presence of the Devil is what separated witchcraft from healers or wise women. The publication of the Malleus Maleficarum is credited with causing the widespread fear of witches as well as providing Protestants and Catholics with the authority to identify and condemn supposed witches.6 It was believed that witches were handmaidens of the Devil, did his bidding, and engaged in carnal relations with him, the ultimate act of defiance to the church.8The view and history of women as witches must be questioned. Incidentally, there is no evidence in the Malleus or other early literature that excluded the definition of a witch to just females.4 In fact, females were not the only victims of accusations. In Salem, six males were convicted and sentenced to death.6 Witch hunts and witchcraft were not specific to women, but developed into a very heavily gendered issue. This imbalance can be shown in numbers, “In England, Europe and New England, at least 200,000 and perhaps as many as eight million people were executed as witches during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and approximately 90% of these people were women, while the men involved were their husbands, brothers and sons,” as well as in the general public understanding based on historical trends that developed the image of witch as strictly female.8This stereotype is rooted in a deeply patriarchal era. History is created by and written by people in power, and this in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was almost strictly if not strictly men. In these societies, based deeply on religion, women were “consigned to rigid roles— mother, wife, caretaker. They had one job: producing obedient, religious children. Women who stepped outside these rigid boundaries were seen as working with Satan”.2 In addition, claims in court did not have to have evidential proof, and testimonies from witnesses as well as claims of spectral evidence was enough to convict those accused.4 This among other power imbalances allowed innocent women to be used as scapegoats.6 Women were the typical target because of the construction of society that placed men in positions of power and gave them advantages to decide the fates of women. Even in the occasion of a male accusee, repercussions for similar evidence and convictions led to less severe punishments and less frequent executions.8This pattern of the abuse of power by males in order to maintain the subordination of women is not a new concept. It can be argued that the witch hysteria was not so much caused by a fear of dark magic, but simply a fear of unruly women.2 Women who defied the Puritan and Christian ideas that lived so deeply within these communities were perceived as threats to the order. Being “poor, vulnerable, unruly and sexually promiscuous turned these women into targets of the criminal justice system”.4One notable woman who found herself a victim of this misogynistic system was Bridget Bishop of Salem Massachusetts. Bishop fit the mold of the type of innocent woman to be targeted. She has been documented as being “known throughout the Salem area for her un-Puritan like behavior of flamboyant dress, tavern frequenting, and multiple marriages”.2 Bridget is perhaps one of the most famous cases of speculated scapegoat use.4 In additional support of her innocence, she has posthumously been exonerated of all crimes.6This inherent disbelief of victims can be seen when looking at the transcript of Bishop’s examination. As an accused woman, she does not receive proper representation nor an adequate chance to defend herself. In Bishop’s trial, her persistent denial of any knowledge of these crimes as well as repeated claims of innocence are apparent. However, her testimony is blatantly ignored, and the eyewitness testimonies of her accusers, as well as spectral evidence, is all that it took to lead the court to sentence her to death. Both Judges were powerful male forces in the community, and used their power and influence to manipulate outcomes to fit their agenda. Viewed as guilty before given a fair trial, Bishop, and countless other women and individuals in her position, were as good as convicted upon accusation. Her only chance at escaping execution would have been to falsely confess, but Bishop maintained her innocence through all of her accusations.2 Bishop was not the first woman to be accused of witchcraft, but the first to be executed in the Salem trials.Examination of Bridget Bishop2Recorded by Samuel Parris2April 19th, 1692Examination by Esq’rs2 John Hathorne4 and Jonathan Corwin6As soon as she came near all fell into fits2Hathorne/Corwin: Bridget Bishop, You are now brought before authority to give acc’o of what witchcrafts you are conversant in.Bishop: I take all these people [turning her head and eyes about] to witness that I am clear.Hathorne/Corwin: [speaking to the afflicted] Hath this woman hurt you?Elizabeth Hubbard, Ann Putman, Abigail Williams, Mercy Lewes affirmed she had hurt them.2Hathorne/Corwin: You are accused by 4 or 5 of hurting them, what do you say to it?Bishop: I never saw these persons before, nor I never was in this place before.Hathorne/Corwin: They say you bewitcht your first husband to death.2Bishop: If it please your worship, I know nothing of it.The afflicted charge her with having hurt them in many ways and tempting them to sign the Devil’s Book, at which she seemed to be angry and said it was false.She shakes her head and the afflicted were tortured upon the motion of her head.Sam Braybrook affirmed that she had told him that she had been accounted a Witch these 10 years but she was no Witch, the Devil cannot hurt her.Bishop: I am no Witch.Hathorne/Corwin: Why if you have not wrote in the book yet tell me how far you have gone?2 Have you not to do with farmiliar Spirits?Bishop: I have no familiarity with the Devil.Hathorne/Corwin: How is it then, that your appearance doth hurt these?Bishop: I am innocent.Hathorne/Corwin: Why you seem to arch Witchcraft before us, by the motion of your body, which seems to have influence upon the afflicted?Bishop: I know nothing of it. I am innocent to a Witch. I know not what a Witch is.Hathorne/Corwin: How do you know then that you are not a Witch? And yet know not what a Witch is?Bishop: I do not understand or know what you say.Hathorne/Corwin: How can you know you are no Witch and yet not know what a Witch is.Bishop: I am clear; if I were any such person you should know it.Hathorne/Corwin: You may threaten, but you can do no more than you are permitted.Bishop: I am innocent of a Witch.Hathorne/Corwin: What do you say of those murders you are charged with?Bishop: I hope, I am not guilty of Murder.Then she turned up her eyes, and the eyes of the afflicted were turned up.Hathorne/Corwin: It may be you do not know, that any have confessed today, who have been examined before you, that they are Witches.Bishop: No, I know nothing of it.John Hutchinson and John Hewes in open court affirmed that they had told her.Hathorne/Corwin: Why look you, you are taken now in a flat lye.Bishop: I did not hear them. Karly Bruder is in her first year at Wake Forest University. A Massachusetts local; she is interested in Salem and Witches in her free time.Molland, Judy. “Of Senate Hearings, Witch Trials and the Terrible Fear of Women.” Off Our Backs 22, no. 6 (1992): 12–13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/20834100.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Ae1b60e1af750fcfe8a7965b27143211dSmithsonian. “A Brief History of the Salem Witch Trials.” Accessed November 13, 2019. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/a-brief-history-of-the-salem-witch-trials-175162489/.Editors, History com. “History of Witches.” HISTORY. Accessed November 5, 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/folklore/history-of-witches.“History of Witches.”“Of Senate Hearings, Witch Trials and the Terrible Fear of Women.”Blécourt, Willem de. “The Making of the Female Witch: Reflections on Witchcraft and Gender in the Early Modern Period.” Gender & History 12, no. 2 (July 2000): 287. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0424.00185.“History of Witches.”“Of Senate Hearings, Witch Trials and the Terrible Fear of Women.”University, Connie Hassett-Walker “Perspective | What the Salem Witches Can Teach Us about How We Treat Women Today.” Washington Post. Accessed October 21, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by-history/wp/2018/06/10/what-the-salem-witches-can-teach-us-about-how-we-treat-women-today/.“Spectral evidence was when the witness would testify that the accused person’s spirit or spectral shape appeared to her/him in a dream at the time that their physical body was at another location. It was because of this ‘evidence’ that 19 people were hanged and one man was pressed to death” Destination Salem. “Bridget Bishop,” June 10, 2016. https://www.salem.org/bridget-bishop-hanged-june-10-1692/.Scapegoat is defined as “a person who is blamed for the wrongdoings, mistakes, or faults of others, especially for reasons of expediency” Lexico Dictionaries | English. “Scapegoat | Definition of Scapegoat by Lexico.” Accessed November 18, 2019. https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/scapegoat.For breakdowns and analyses of gender, accusations, and outcomes in different regions and times, see: Swales, J. K., and Hugh V. McLachlan. “Witchcraft and the Status of Women: A Comment.” The British Journal of Sociology 30, no. 3 (1979): 349–58. https://doi.org/10.2307/589913.For more on this argument: “This fear of female sexuality which drives men to deride and objectify women, this male need for control, has been around for a very long time. The ways in which men have maintained power over women is not a natural phenomenon, but a constructed one; in the early modern period, a time of immense social changes, the persecution of witches was used as a means to hold on to the male status quo in the emerging social order.” “Of Senate Hearings, Witch Trials and the Terrible Fear of Women.”University, Connie Hassett-Walker “Perspective | What the Salem Witches Can Teach Us about How We Treat Women Today.” Washington Post. Accessed October 21, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by-history/wp/2018/06/10/what-the-salem-witches-can-teach-us-about-how-we-treat-women-today/.Destination Salem. “Bridget Bishop,” June 10, 2016. https://www.salem.org/bridget-bishop-hanged-june-10-1692/“Some historians speculate that a reason Bridget Bishop was accused in the 1692 Salem witchcraft craze was that her second husband's children wanted the property that she had possession of as an inheritance from Oliver.” Divinity, Jone Johnson Lewis “Bridget Bishop: First Person Executed in the Salem Witch Trials.” ThoughtCo. Accessed November 5, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/bridget-bishop-biography-3530330.A 2001 bill passed by Massachusetts Governor Jane Swift formally exonerated Bishop and four other wrongly executed females for all crimes. Representative Paul Tirone stated "It brings closure to a lot of the families. These people were victims. They gave up their lives". For more, see: “Executed Salem Witches Exonerated | WWRN - World-Wide Religious News.” Accessed November 19, 2019. https://wwrn.org/articles/9431/.Bishop was previously accused of witchcraft in 1680 by her second husband Thomas Oliver. Oliver stated that bishop was a terrible wife who sat up at night with the devil. Bishop received no punishments for this claim. “Courtroom Examination of Bridget Bishop by Sarah Nell Walsh.” Accessed November 19, 2019. http://salem.lib.virginia.edu/people/bishop_court.html.Access to the original primary source: “SWP No. 013: Bridget Bishop Executed, June 10, 1692 - New Salem - Pelican.” Accessed October 21, 2019. http://salem.lib.virginia.edu/n13.html.Reverend Samuel Parris was one of the most powerful and influential figures in Salem, MA. He preached of the work of the Devil in his parish, and was a driving force of the beginning of the persecution of witches in the region. “Important Persons in the Salem Court Records.” Accessed November 5, 2019. http://salem.lib.virginia.edu/people/#parris_samuel.Esqr. or Esq. is an abbreviation for Esquire used to denote a man of law in American standards. TheFreeDictionary.com. “Esq.” Accessed November 19, 2019. https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Esq.John Hathorne was perhaps the most prominent magistrate within Salem and acted as a Judge for a majority of the Salem Witch Trials. Hathorne’s created legacy is of a prosecutor of innocent accusees who “always began with a presumption of guilt rather than innocence”. In addition Hathorne boosted the number of accusations by pressuring those accused to confess and submit other names for a chance at escaping an execution sentence. “Important Persons in the Salem Court Records.” Accessed November 19, 2019. http://salem.lib.virginia.edu/people/#hathorne_john.Johnathan Corwin is another notable Judge in the Salem Witch Trials. In addition to coming from a powerful family of court officials, Corwin was also brother-in-law to Hathorne. Brooks, Rebecca Beatrice. “Jonathan Corwin: Salem Witch Judge,” January 26, 2016. https://historyofmassachusetts.org/jonathan-corwin-salem-witch-judge/.Italicized sections are written observations of the courtroom by recorder Samuel Parris and were not spoken by any individual within the court.Four of the individuals who placed witchcraft accusations on Bishop. “Courtroom Examination of Bridget Bishop by Sarah Nell Walsh.” Accessed November 19, 2019. http://salem.lib.virginia.edu/people/bishop_court.html.In reference to Bishops previous accusations of witchcraft by one of her husbands and her step children, believed to be driven by the motive of aqquiring her land. Divinity, Jone Johnson Lewis “Bridget Bishop: First Person Executed in the Salem Witch Trials.” ThoughtCo. Accessed November 5, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/bridget-bishop-biography-3530330. For more on Bishops previous accusations, see: “The Witchcraft Trial of Bridget Bishop,” October 10, 2011. https://historyofmassachusetts.org/bridget-bishop-witch-or-easy-target/.It was of Puritain belief that a Witch gained demonic powers and/or sealed their relationship with the Devil by signing his book with ink or blood. A confession to signing his book resulted in immediate conviction as a witch and was widely sought by the Judges and prosecutors. Divinity, Jone Johnson Lewis “Why Was ‘Signing the Devil’s Book’ an Important Sign of a Witch?” ThoughtCo. Accessed November 19, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/signing-the-devils-book-3528203.Chapter 2Woman Sculptors in Relation to Antislavery and Women's Rights MovementsSahara WillisHarriet Hosmer, Oenone (1855)4photograph of the statue "Oenone"Harriet Hosmer, Oenone (1855)IntroductionOverviewThroughout the mid-nineteenth century, American women vocalized their criticism of slavery and their support for women’s rights 2 through the creative medium of sculpture. These women contemplated and responded to debates surrounding slaveholding4 and the progressive role of women in relation to politics. Themes of race, gender, and power were prevalent in their work. They each used visual arts as a means to convey their political sentiments, ultimately denouncing the act of holding slaves as immoral and taking a stance in advocacy for women to play a salient role6 in political affairs.Women frequently came across hardships when trying to establish themselves as professional artists. They lacked equal access to art education and grappled against the notion that art spaces and studios were public, therefore not appropriate for women. For sculptors, nude art was often the muse for creation, these women were faced with an obstacle as the study of human anatomy and life drawing (which usually utilized nude models) was regarded as wrongful for women in the nineteenth century. That being said, these women sculptors faced conflicted expectations within their craft; they were in need of the education that threatened to deprive them of the qualities that fabricated their gender and sexuality2. Even in the face of these obstacles, a number of American women became successful sculptors in the mid-nineteenth century. The personal ties they had in the push for equality, encouraged them to speak up in the face of adversity.These trailblazing artists became known as “the white marmorean flock,” a term coined by Henry James2 Each with a commitment to abolitionism and women’s rights, in association with other like-minded non-conformers. While the persons who sat as the subjects of neoclassical sculpture were compatible with the “woman’s sphere”4 the artists themselves and the process’ within of their work did not fall into this sphere.The ArtistsHarriet Hosmer (1830-1908), was known for her work with suffrage organizations and she often showcased works with themes of victimized woman to portray her ideologies. Mary Edmonia Lewis (1843?-1911?) used sculpture to commemorate and exemplify abolitionist efforts and also through memorializing inspirational events such as the Emancipation Proclamation with her drawings. She was involved in several antislavery organizations and held a strong commitment to abolitionism. Anne Whitney (1821-1915) often broke norms of artistic conventions with European and American influences in her direct representations of black figures, including the allegorical female Africa and the biographical Toussaint L’Ouverture. 2 Other artists of this stature, working in the Neoclassical style include Louisa Lander, Emma Stebbins, Margaret Foley, Florence Freeman, and Vinnie Ream.Sculptors were often pulled towards symbolic means of expression like utilizing the physical form of an enslaved woman as a means to concretely represent the social constructs and conceptual ideas of race, gender, and inequality. In doing so these women frequently pushed the bounds of nineteenth-century artistic convention in order to critique slavery and women’s status in America. They stood with other reformers that served as their advisors, financial supporters, and allies as they worked diligently to create a stance for social reform through visual communication. These women stood at the forefront of this progressive movement and created in solidarity with each other.Hosmer and OenoneAs we delve further into the white marmorean flock, Harriet Hosmer’s work is notable. She preferred Neoclassical idealism to more naturalistic trends and rendered mythological and historical figures, such as Oenone, Beatrice Cenci, and Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, with nobility and grandeur2. Hosmer’s work showcases her craftsmanship and embodies many of the ideologies she stood firmly by throughout her career.Now we’ll take a closer look at Hosmers’ Oenone.AnalysisOenone (1855) was Hosmer’s first full-length, full-body sculpture. The sculpture depicts the nymph abandoned by her lover, for Helen of Troy. The story of Oenone became popular in the mid-nineteenth century with the publications of Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poem Oenone. 2 With his poem, Tennyson focused on the tragic love that Oenone, daughter of the river-god Oeneus, felt for her husband Paris when he abandoned her for Helen in the episode that sparked the Trojan War. 4 Hosmer’s statue and portrayal of the myth follows similar themes of mourning and victimization.In Oenone, Hosmer highlighted her subject’s reserve and capability to overcome and maintain their beauty in the face of objectification, sexual assault, and even utter tragedy. She takes a lot of influence from Greek mythology. For instance Daphne, who was unwilling to be an object of the god Apollo’s lust and sexual desires, Medusa, who was raped by the god Poseidon, and Oenone who is also victimized by male infatuation. Hosmer’s Oenone demonstrates her ability to evoke emotion through the craftsmanship of soft curves and understanding of the nude body, while also displaying the subject’s reserve and emotional state through the position of her body. 2 In lieu of a biography, I leave you with a quote:Art and culture are the greatest weapons against hate agendas, entrenched ideologies, and power structures that harbor and promote the business of divisiveness.Fantastic NegritoSee “Women Artists in the Washington University Collections,” Women Artists in the Washington University Collections | Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum, accessed November 2, 2019Throughout the late 1800s and the early 1900s, many activists in antislavery joined the women's rights movement. These women worked diligently to gain the right to vote, establish socioeconomic equality and carry out other social reforms. See “Women Suffrage in the Progressive Era - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation: Teacher Resources,” Library of Congress, accessed November 21, 2019, http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/progress/suffrage/)Slaveholding is the practice of owning slaves. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries people were kidnapped from the continent of Africa, forced into slavery in the American colonies and exploited to work as indentured servants. See History.com Editors, “Slavery in America,” History.com (A&E Television Networks, November 12, 2009), https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/slavery)Women gained the right to control their earnings, own property, and, in the case of divorce, take custody of their children. By 1896, women had gained the right to vote in four states (Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, and Utah) See “Women Suffrage in the Progressive Era - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation: Teacher Resources,” Library of Congress, accessed November 1, 2019, http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/progress/suffrage/)This concept is known as Unsex or deprivation of one's sexual power.The White Marmorean Flock refers to a group of nineteenth-century expatriate American sculptors working in the Neoclassical style. The Neoclassical style is used generally to describe art or architecture with classical influences.The term "woman's sphere" commonly refers to domestic life; Tasks involving housekeeping or childcare.See "Introduction." Included in How Did Women Sculptors Contribute to and Draw Support from the Antislavery and Woman's Rights Movements, 1855-1875?, Documents selected and interpreted by Laura R. Prieto. (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street Press, 2008).See “National Museum of Women in the Arts,” Harriet Goodhue Hosmer | National Museum of Women in the Arts, accessed November 12, 2019, https://nmwa.org/explore/artist-profiles/harriet-goodhue-hosmer)Tennyson published two different versions of the poem, the first in 1832 and the second in 1842The Trojan War is one of the most important events in Greek mythology in which war was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans. See “Women Artists in the Washington University Collections,” Oenone | Women Artists in the Washington University Collections, accessed November 12, 2019, https://pages.wustl.edu/womenartists/articles/10534)Hosmer’s sculptural interpretation of the story shows Oenone looking downward in mourning but with a serene expression and idealized form characteristic of the neoclassical style See “Women Artists in the Washington University Collections,” Oenone | Women Artists in the Washington University Collections, accessed November 2, 2019, https://pages.wustl.edu/womenartists/articles/10534).Chapter 3Laundry: Eroticism in Mundane ActivityOlivia ThonsonStereograph image of a woman ironing clothes. The woman is wearing a loose-fitting dress and her breast is partially exposedStereoscope (1861). In Nus d’Autrefois, Marcel Bovis François Saint-Julien (ed.), Arts et Metiers Graphiques, Paris, 1953IntroductionThis stereograph2 holds high cultural significance and value. It’s not famous nor is it well-known; however, the purpose behind the stereograph demonstrates implicit and explicit societal messages of the time period. The image was included in the book Nus d’Autrefois5, a collection of 19th-century French pornography and erotica. The dress the woman is wearing, her tight corset, hairstyle, and loose sleeves, as well as the objects pictured, indicate this stereoscopic image was taken during the Victorian Era in the early 1860s. In the foreground, there is a young woman ironing laundry, her dress has fallen off of her shoulder and her breast is exposed. Behind the woman, a hanging cloth is visible as well as an oven with a kettle sitting on one of the burners. The longer exposure time insinuates the photograph was posed and most likely intended for the distribution of pornographic material. During the Victorian era, the technological advancements of photography contributed to a rise in the development and distribution of erotica. Due to this phenomenon, there was a shift in laws and norms regarding the censorship and dissemination of suggestive art. Through analyzing the woman’s posing and her mundane tasks, information concerning the role of gender, issues of socio-economic class, as well as a dominant power hierarchy between the sexes in Victorian society become evident.Stereography and EroticaThe stereoscope was developed in the late 1830s and marked an important technological advancement for photography. Stereoscope images consisted of two daguerreotypes2 or another form of a photographic process, taken from slightly different angles. Through the binocular vision, two lenses on the stereoscope merge the photograph into one three dimensional image. However, the stereoscope did not just have a technological or scientific impact, it demonstrated a new social development in photography and had an unquantifiable effect on the way people in the Victorian era saw the relationship between the senses, especially touch and vision.4 The stereoscope gained commercial prominence during the 1850s after scientist David Brewster improved the design, creating a handheld device, which was able to display photographs. The stereographs ranged from travel to staged views and after the development of the wet collodion photography process, prints were affordable, costing only pennies. This allowed middle-class families the ability to travel virtually. The stereoview quickly became a household product and there was a new emphasis placed on visual culture.6 The French poet Charles Baudelaire8 described the prevalence of stereoscopic pornography as “a thousand hungry eyes…bending over the peep-holes of the stereoscope, as though they were attic-windows of the infinite.”10 Similarly to the advent of photography, pornography and erotica became popular with stereography. For viewers, many believed that stereoscopes merged their senses, as they were essentially looking at an optical illusion. Erotic photographs began to be produced in large quantities to fit the new medium.12Today, the study and analysis of Victorian and other 19th-century pornography are rarely found as many early images have not been disseminated or preserved within the art community. There were commonly three categories of 19th-century nude photographs. The first and least morally scrutinized image was the academic nude. These were nude photographs for academic use and study. The other two categories were for pure erotic sensation: eroticism in mundane activities and overtly sexual images. The overtly sexual images were not distributed by studios and sold on an almost “underground” pornographic market in order to disseminate images without the French government knowing. The less overt, and erotic photos, like the primary source pictured above, were posed.2 In this stereoscope, the woman’s breast is in the center of the image and is illuminated, intentionally drawing a voyeuristic gaze upon her figure. The overall whiteness of the image draws attention to her skin tone. She is pictured washing and ironing clothes which is undoubtedly a domestic duty. There is not only a gendered dynamic to this photography, but it also demonstrates the classist and patriarchal power structure of 19th-century French Victorian society. The stereoscope, making the image three-dimensional offers a different dimension of realism, accentuating the woman’s breast and figure as well as her mundane task.Victorian pornography was a product of culture, politics, and customs of the time period. However, erotic material characterized as anything from posed eroticism in mundane activities to overtly sexual images were placed under judicial surveillance in both France and Britain. In France, a specific police unit was created and tasked to monitor the distribution and creation of erotic and pornographic photographs. The Dossier BB32 was used by authorities to help find those involved with the distribution of pornography. The police are responsible for the prosecution of well-known photographers and models between 1855 and 1868.4 The censorship on erotica and pornography did not just include photography, but also famous pieces of artwork such as Olympia by Manet.8 Yet, although the police had a unit that served for over thirteen years and the Dossier BB3 survived, there are very few documents from that time period that remain. In Britain, the House of Commons passed a law that banned street and cheap pornography, leaving expensive erotic books that only the upper class could afford. While the laws and government response to pornography differed based on geopolitical borders, the response against Victorian-era photographic and especially stereoscopic pornography was tied primarily with the debate around purity and class issues.10 Although the medium of erotica and pornography has changed between centuries, and even decades, the Victorian era paved the way for the erotic material which exists currently today.When looking at this primary source and analyzing it through an American feminist perspective, one could conclude that the woman in the stereoscope was suppressed by patriarchal forces and made to stay at home and work only within the household. Thinking about it this way, one would draw their conclusions based on the 1950s in American society2, where women were relegated to the domestic sphere and purely secretarial jobs. This is demonstrative of the change around the analysis and study of the roles of gender. Looking at the primary source, in the specific context of its time period and geographic location, however, it would insinuate a message not only about gender and patriarchal relationships but about class. In 19th century Victorian France, laundry was a task that middle to upper-class wives would not do as it was reserved for someone of lower socioeconomic status, like a laundress or a housemaid. Thus, men could potentially look at this image through a status of superior power and extrapolate that this woman is not only there for doing laundry, but to satisfy their sexual needs or wants as well. The power relationship between the figure and the observer demonstrates that the female body is there for the sole reason to be objectified. There were power dynamics and relationships within the laundry industry in general. Middle to upper-classmen would look at working women and lower-class women in order to satisfy a certain sexual desire. In 19th century Paris, the laundry industry employed around twenty-five percent of the female workforce.4 The occupation of a laundress signified being in a lower socio-economic class. Victorian society, especially those in the middle class, began to create and shift pornography to be centered around class hierarchy: the occupation of laundresses at the center of it. The penny fiction periodical chroniques scandaleuses became a staple of Victorian pornographic and erotic culture. Through this popular middle-class publication, the lower class and lower class occupations, such as laundresses, began to be associated with loose morals and heightened sexual promiscuity. Due to these stereotypes, the working class became the center of Victorian sexuality.6 However, the lower and working classes never made the decisions, their bodies and figures, like the woman in the stereoscope, existed for the sexual and labor exploitation by the middle and upper class.8Many French artists played off the idea of a promiscuous working class and created erotic art centered around the idea of a sexual affair with or the sexual promiscuity of a laundress. Novelist Emile Zola published L’Assommoir3 in 1877. The main character, a poor laundress was characterized by her lack of morals and her sexual promiscuity due to her patriarchal working structure.5 In Octave Uzanne’s Femme à Paris8, he wrote that laundresses and ironers “have a shocking reputation for folly and grossness…[they] descend sometimes to the lowest forms of prostitution…”11 Similarly, in some of Edgar Degas’13 work, he also depicted laundresses in his artwork, usually in an urban environment, mirroring the setting of the stereoscope image. In addition, Degas’ paintings had erotic and pornographic undertones in which the women subjects can be analyzed as they were open to sexual advances.15 These artists and writers, like the rest of the middle to upper-class Victorian society, viewed laundresses as objects for over-sexualization and scrutiny. Their work only furthered the classist stereotypes and hierarchy which existed.While at first, the photograph does not seem like an overt important cultural relic, the subject matter demonstrates the cultural significance of this erotic stereoscope to 19th century Victorian France. Although an inherently mundane task, laundry, and laundresses became a symbol of sexual promiscuity. This stereoscope demonstrates that it was not only an issue of gender but one of class, as the middle to upper class sexualized and took advantage of those in a lower socioeconomic status. While posed, this stereoscopic pornography furthered the stereotype of French laundresses, promoted gendered power struggles, and capitalized off of inherently perverted male voyeurism.Olivia Thonson is a second year at Wake Forest University majoring in Political Science and Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies with a minor in bioethics. A stereograph image includes two nearly identical photos that when viewed in a stereoview, creates a three-dimensional image.Nus d’Autrefois is a collection of 19th-century French pornography and erotica edited by Marcel Bovis François Saint-Julien and published by Arts et Metiers Graphiques in Paris in 1953. It includes a variety of subjects and different styles of photography.Daguerreotype is the first photographic process which used chemicals and a light-sensitive camera to create a one time positive. It was created by Louis Daguerre and introduced to the international scene in 1839. However, with the invention of cheaper and more accessible methods, the daguerreotype quickly became a dated technology.John Plunkett, “‘Feeling Seeing’: Touch, Vision and the Stereoscope,” History of Photography 37, no. 4 (November 1, 2013): 389–96, https://doi.org/10.1080/03087298.2013.785718.Schools, toys, photographs, and news began to shift to use stereoscope imagery as a tool for education, creating a culture around vision.Charles Baudelaire is a very well-known poet from the 19th century. His work had an influence on modernism as well as the production and structure of poetry entirely.Clive Thompson, “Stereographs Were the Original Virtual Reality,” Smithsonian, accessed November 17, 2019, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/sterographs-original-virtual-reality-180964771/.Isobel Crombie, “Private Pleasures: An Example of French Photographic Erotica | NGV,” accessed November 17, 2019, https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/essay/private-pleasures-an-example-of-french-photographic-erotica/.Crombie.The Dossier BB3 is a 303-page handwritten document about the production of pornography and erotic images. It holds confiscated stereoscopes of overtly sexual photographs, but also academic nudes, in which artists sold pornography under the guise that it was for education. It also detailed arrest histories.Colette Colligan, “Stereograph,” Victorian Review 34, no. 1 (2008): 75–82.Thomas B Hess and Linda Nochlin, Woman as Sex Object; Studies in Erotic Art, 1730-1970 (Alvin Garfin, Newsweek, Inc, 1972).Kathleen Frederickson, “Victorian Pornography and the Laws of Genre,” Literature Compass 8, no. 5 (2011): 304–12, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4113.2011.00800.x.When analyzing gender, many tend to think of and discuss stereotypical 1950s American gender roles. The woman controlling the domestic sphere (raising children, cleaning the house, doing the laundry), and the man as the breadwinner. This would skew the analysis of the stereograph as it is not about domesticity, but about power structures and classism.“Women Ironing » Norton Simon Museum,” accessed November 18, 2019, https://www.nortonsimon.org/art/detail/M.1971.3.P/M.1979.17.P.Allison Pease, Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Aesthetics of Obscenity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).Pease.L’Assommoir was a twenty-volume series by Emile Zola about the working class, poverty, and alcoholism in Paris. The novel portrays his viewpoints on social and moral determinism and placed the blame directly on the low-income people, rather than the political and economic policies of the time.Jaimee Grüring, “Dirty Laundry: Public Hygiene and Public Space in Nineteenth-Century Paris,” n.d., 317.A popular history of France during the time.Eunice Lipton, “THE LAUNDRESS IN LATE NINETEENTH‐CENTURY FRENCH CULTURE: Imagery, Ideology, and Edgar Degas,” Art History 3, no. 3 (September 1980): 295–313, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8365.1980.tb00080.x.Edgar Degas was a French artist who lived from 1834-1917. Degas was born into a wealthy family and had a complete education of the classics. He is very well-known for his sculptures and drawings of dancers. He is known to be one of the creators of Impressionism. Yet, he continually referred to himself as a realist. Degas also liked to draw laundresses and people of a lower class.Grüring, “Dirty Laundry: Public Hygiene and Public Space in Nineteenth-Century Paris.”Chapter 4Eliza Burt Gamble’s Refutations to Darwinian Theory of Evolution and the Societal Norm of Male SuperiorityJackie DeQuattroIntroductionThis primary source is an excerpt from a book titled The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man published by Eliza Burt Gamble in 1894.1 This book was revolutionary for its time because of Gamble’s feminist refutations to Darwin’s theory of evolution. Gamble, although making clear her appreciation for Darwin’s exceptional mental breadth, clarifies in her book that his scientific theory is not completely objective. She believed that Darwin’s conclusions were a product of the societal norms in the Victorian era and that in his attempt to prove the superiority of men, he ignored certain facts he himself discovered. Therefore, her book is both a critique of Darwinian theory and an academic and scientific justification for the superiority of women.Eliza Burt Gamble grew up in Concord, Michigan with her mother and her older sister.2 Being raised by a widowed mother, some believe, is partly the reason Gamble grew to be the strong, empowered feminist she was. Moreover, after Gamble’s mother passed away in her later teenage years, Eliza was left to provide for herself, and through that she found a career in education, more specifically serving as the superintendent of East Saginaw school district. The self-reliance and independence that Gamble gained through her childhood also bolstered her feminist ideologies, some of which included believing firmly in human rights and individual liberties, making her a natural supporter of women’s suffrage. She became involved in the movement in the late 1860s and helped organize in 1876 the first suffrage conference in Michigan.4 However, even through her work with the women’s suffrage movement, Gamble believed that the movement addressed only the surface issues of sexual equality6.In the year 1882, Gamble was convinced she could prove her long-held hypothesis that “the female organization [was] in no wise inferior to that of the male.”2 and address society’s preconceived notions about sexual inequality. To do this, Gamble set out to Washington D.C. where she studied the collections at the Library of Congress4, and after years of tirelessly researching and writing, Gamble published The Evolution of Woman.In her book, Gamble’s main argument revolves around Darwin’s ideologies from his novel published in 1871, The Descent of Man. In his work, he claimed that the inferiority of the female sex became apparent at the age of reproduction when secondary sexual characteristics were observable.2 The Descent of Man discusses that the secondary sexual characteristics of men enabled and aided their pursuit of women, making them the superior species, however, Gamble counters this point by stating that the female’s exercise of discerning taste and choice in sexual selection makes them in fact superior: “if it is through [the female’s] will, or through some agency or tendency latent in her constitution that Sexual Selection comes into play, then she is the primary cause of the very characters through which man’s superiority over woman has been gained.” 4 Gamble considered this evidence not only of female superiority, but also the higher mental capacity and intelligence of women because it is through a woman’s “power of choice” 6 they have been “the directing and controlling agency in the development of [man] through which, the human species was reached.” 8 Gamble argues that the determining capability of the female marked complexity through which the species was founded upon, establishing their characteristics as more developed and therefore more remarkable than the characteristics of man.According to Gamble’s novel, the high specialization of women and their complexity is marked by the constancy of their sexual characteristics, whereas the variability of the male’s sexual characteristics showed low organization and an inability to perform legitimate functions. Gamble argued this concept by explaining that in environments lacking resources like food, light, and moisture, males were the predominant sex born, but in communities wealthy in resources, the female sex was more commonly produced, supplementing the evidence for women having organizational superiority. Gamble also mentioned that “statistics prove that in towns and in well-to-do families there is a preponderance of girls, while in the country, and among the poor, more boys are born,” 2 leading her to assert that the female “represents a higher development than the male.” 4Another argument that Gamble uses to reinforce her claim of female superiority is that some of the preconceived strengths that men have over women prove to be “useless, if not an actual hindrance to [them].” 2 She asserts that even though man’s greater size was necessary through natural selection, their larger size and weight has now caused their power of endurance to fall below the power of women. Gamble discusses how this supposed attribute of superiority in men actually acts as an impediment and example of structural superiority in women.As evident from her multifaceted argument, Eliza Gamble’s The Evolution of Women was both well-constructed and complex, working as an ingenious plea for the supremacy of the female sex. The heart of Gamble’s argument illustrated the feminist ideologies that she grew up being inspired by. Gamble provided scientific and evidence-based arguments refuting the Darwinian theory that had asserted the inferiority of the female sex was natural within society.The Evolution of WomanEliza GambleSexual Selection, we are told, resembles artificial selection, save that the female takes the place of the human breeder. In other words, she represents the intelligent factor or cause in the operations involved. If this be true, if it is through her will, or through some agency or tendency latent in her constitution that Sexual Selection comes into play, then she is the primary cause of the very characters through which man’s superiority over woman has been gained. As a stream may not rise higher than its source, or as the creature may not surpass its creator in excellence, it is difficult to understand the processes by which man, through Sexual Selection, has become superior to woman.“He who admits the principle of sexual selection will be led to the remarkable conclusion that the nervous system not only regulates most of the existing functions of the body but has indirectly influenced the progressive development of various bodily structures and certain mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, strength and size of body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and instrumental, bright colors and ornamental appendages have all been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the exertion of choice, the influence of love and jealousy, and the appreciation of the beautiful in sound, colour or form; and these powers of the mind manifestly depend on the development of the brain.”2While the female has been performing the higher functions in the processes of reproduction, through her force of will, or through her power of choice, she has also been the directing and controlling agency in the development of those characters in the male through which, when the human species was reached, he was enabled to attain a limited degree of progress.Since the origin of secondary sexual characters is so clearly manifest, perhaps it will be well for us at this point to examine also their actual significance, that we may be enabled to note the foundation upon which the dogma of male superiority rests.Although the gay coloring of male birds and fishes has usually been regarded as an indication of their superiority over their somber-colored mates, later investigations are proving that these pigments represent simply unspecialized material, and an effort of the system to cast out the waste products which have accumulated as a result of excessive ardor in courtship. The same is true of combs, wattles, and other skin excrescences; they show a feverish condition of the skin in the over-excited males, whose temperature is usually much higher than is that of females. We are assured that the skin eruptions of male fishes at the spawning season “seem more pathological than decorative.” 2In the processes of reproduction, the undeveloped atoms given off from each varying part are reproduced only in the male line.The beautiful coloring of male birds and fishes, and the various appendages acquired by males throughout the various orders below man, and which, so far as they themselves are concerned, serve no other useful purpose than to aid them in securing the favors of the females, have by the latter been turned to account in the processes of reproduction. The female made the male beautiful that she might endure his caresses.From the facts elaborated by our guides in this matter, it would seem that the female is the primary unit of creation, and that the male functions are simply supplemental or complementary. Parthenogenesis among many of the lower forms of life would seem to favor this view. We are given to understand that under conditions favoring catabolism, the males among rotifera wear themselves out, under which conditions the females become katabolic enough to do without them.“Among the common rotifera, the males are almost always very different from the females, and much smaller. Sometimes they seem to have dwindled out of existence altogether, for only the females are known. In other cases, though present, they entirely fail to accomplish their proper function of fertilization, and, as parthenogenesis obtains, are not only minute, but useless.”2So long as food is plentiful, the females continue to raise parthenogenetic offspring, but with the advent of hard times, when food is scarce or of a poor quality, the parthenogenetic series is interrupted by the appearance of males. Although, unaided by the male, the female of certain species is able to reproduce, he has never been able to propagate without her co-operation.Concerning the conditions which underlie the production of females and males we have the following from The Evolution of Sex by Geddes and Thomson:“Such conditions as deficient or abnormal food, high temperature, deficient light, moisture, and the like, are obviously such as would tend to induce a preponderance of waste over repair, —a katabolic habit of body,—and these conditions tend to result in the production of males. Similarly, the opposed set of factors, such as abundant and rich nutrition, abundant light and moisture, favor constructive process, i.e., make for an anabolic habit, and these conditions result in the production of females.”2Among the lower orders of animal life—notably insects, we are assured that an excess of females denotes an excess of formative force, and that an excess of males indicates a deficiency on the part of the parents. In the case of bees, the queen, which is the highest development, is produced only under the highest circumstances of nutrition, while the birth of the drone, which is the lowest result of propagation, is preceded by extremely low conditions.The working bee which, being an imperfect female, may not be impregnated, will, however, give birth to parthenogenetic offspring, such offspring always being male. In the case of aphides, the sex depends on the conditions of nutrition. During the summer months while food is plentiful and nutritious, females are parthenogenetically produced, but with the return of autumn and the attendant scarcity of food, together with the low temperature, only males are brought forth. It is observed that in seasons in which food is abundant, cladocera and aphides lose the power to copulate; they nevertheless multiply parthenogenetically at a marvelous rate of increase, “giving birth to generation after generation of parthenogenetic females, so long as the environment remains favorable, but giving birth, as soon as the conditions of life become less favorable, to males and to females which require fertilization.”2 We are assured also that if caterpillars are shut up and starved before entering the chrysalis stage, the butterflies which make their appearance are males, while the highly nourished caterpillars are sure to come out females. In the case of moths innutritions food produces only males.Experiments show that when tadpoles are left to themselves the average number of females is about fifty-seven in the hundred, but that under favorable conditions the percentage of females is greatly increased. The following is the result of one series of observations by Yung. In the first brood, by feeding one set with beef, the percentage of females was raised from fifty-four to seventy-eight; in the second, with fish, the percentage rose from sixty-one to eighty-one, while in the third set, when the nutritious flesh of frogs was supplied, only eight males were produced to ninety-two females.2It is stated that although scarcity of food is an important factor in determining the appearance of males, temperature also plays an important part in their production. Kurg having found a few males in mid-summer in pools which were nearly dried up, was induced to attempt their artificial production. We are told that he was so successful that “he obtained the males of forty species, in all of which the males had previously been unknown.” He proved that “any unfavorable change in the water causes the production of males, which appear as it dries up, as its chemical constitution changes, when it acquires an unfavorable temperature, or, in general, when there is a decrease in prosperity.” From which observations, and many others quoted from During, Professor Brooks concludes that “among animals and plants, as well as in mankind, a favorable environment causes an excess of female births, and an unfavorable environment an excess of male births.”2 According to Rolph, also, the percentage of females increases with the increase of favorable conditions of temperature and food.Among insects, the males appear first, thus showing that less time is required to develop them from the larval state. Of this Mr. Darwin says: “Throughout the great class of insects the males almost always are the first to emerge from the pupal state, so that they generally abound for a time before any females can be seen.”2Recent observations show that among the human species nutrition plays a significant part in determining sex. Statistics prove that in towns and in well-to-do families there is a preponderance of girls, while in the country, and among the poor, more boys are born; also, that immediately following epidemics, wars, and famines, there is an excess of male births. On examination, it was found that in Saxony “the ratio of boy-births rose and fell with the price of food, and that the variation was most marked in the country.”2That the female represents a higher development than the male is proved throughout all the various departments of nature. Among plants, staminate flowers open before pistillate, and are much more abundant, and less differentiated from the leaves, showing that they are less developed, and that slighter effort, a less expenditure of force, is necessary to form the male than the female. A male flower represents an intermediate stage between a leaf and a perfect, or we might say, a female flower, and the germ which produces the male would, in a higher stage, produce the female. In reference to the subject of the relative positions of the female and male flowers in the Sedges, Mr. Meehan observes:“In some cases the spike of the male flowers terminates the scape; in others the male flowers occupy the lower place; in others, again they have various places on the same spike. It will be generally noted that this is associated together with lines of nutrition, —those evidently favored by comparative abundance sustaining the female flowers.”2To this Mr. Meehan adds: “And this is indeed a natural consequence, for, as vitality exists so much longer in the female than the male flowers, which generally die when the pollen has matured, it is essential that they should have every advantage in this respect.”The most perfect and vigorous specimens of cuniferous trees are of the female kind. We are told that in its highest and most luxurious stage the larch bears only female blossoms, but that so soon as its vigor is lost male flowers appear, after which death soon ensues.In the Evolution of Sex, by Geddes and Thomson, is the following:“In phraseology, which will presently become more intelligible and concrete, the males live at a loss, are more katabolic, —disruptive changes tending to preponderate in the sum of changes in their living matter or protoplasm. The females, on the other hand, live at a profit, are more anabolic, —constructive processes predominating in their life, whence indeed the capacity of bearing offspring.”2Among the lower orders of animals, there appears an excess of males, and among the higher forms of life, man included, the fact that the male is the result of the cruder, less developed germ, has been clearly shown, not alone by the facts brought forward by Mr. Darwin, but by those enunciated by all reliable writers on this subject. As a result of the excessive eagerness in males, and the consequent expenditure of vital force among the lower orders of life to find the female and secure her favors, they are generally smaller in, size, with a higher body temperature and shorter life. Among the higher orders, the human species for instance, although man is larger than woman, he is still shorter lived, has less endurance, is more predisposed to organic diseases, and is more given to reversion to former types, facts which show that his greater size is not the result of higher development. We are assured that the liability to assume characters proper to lower orders belongs in a marked degree to males of all the higher species—man included.Doubtless man’s greater size (a modification which has been acquired through Sexual Selection) has been of considerable value to him in the struggle for existence to which he has been subjected, but the indications are already strong that after a certain stage of progress has been reached, even this modification of structure will prove useless, if not an actual hindrance to him. On mechanical principles, every increase of size requires more than a corresponding increase of strength and endurance to balance the activities and carry on the vital processes, yet such have been the conditions of man’s development, that his excess of strength does not compensate for his greater size and weight, while his powers of endurance fall below those of women.We are informed by Mr. Darwin that by a vast number of measurements taken of various parts of the human body in different races, during his Novara Expedition, it was found that the men in almost every case presented a greater range of variations than women, and, as Mr. Wood has carefully attended to the variations of the muscles of man, Mr. Darwin quotes from him that “the greatest number of abnormalities in each subject is found in males.” He adduces also the testimony of several others who have practically investigated this subject, all of whom agree in their statements that variations in the muscles are more frequent in males than in females. These variations usually consist in a reversion to lower types—a reversion in which muscles proper to lower forms of life make their appearance.Jackie DeQuattro, a freshman at Wake Forest University, is involved in Student Government and the environmental group EcoDeacs. She is interested in the subordination of women throughout history as well as examining arguments for and against this seemingly natural hierarchy of sexuality.Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50Michigan State University. “Women in Science | Biographies | Eliza Burt Gamble.” Women in Science. Accessed December 2, 2019. http://womeninscience.history.msu.edu/Biography/C-4A-2/eliza-burt-gamble/.Michigan State University. “Women in Science | Biographies | Eliza Burt Gamble.” Women in Science. Accessed December 2, 2019. http://womeninscience.history.msu.edu/Biography/C-4A-2/eliza-burt-gamble/.J. David Hoeveler, The Evolutionists (New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2007)Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50.Mary Cohart, Unsung Champions of Women (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975)Michigan State University. “Women in Science | Biographies | Eliza Burt Gamble.” Women in Science. Accessed December 2, 2019. http://womeninscience.history.msu.edu/Biography/C-4A-2/eliza-burt-gamble/.Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50.Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50.Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50.Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50.Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50.Gamble, Eliza Burt. The Evolution of Woman; an Inquiry into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894. http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BmBh50.The Descent of Man, pg. 617Geddes and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex, p. 24The Evolution of Sex, p. 20The Evolution of Sex, p. 50Prof, W. K. Brooks, Pop. Science Monthly, vol, xxvi., p. 327Geddes and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex, p. 42Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxvi., p. 328The Descent of Man, p. 212W. K. Brooks, Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxvi., p. 326Native Flowers and Ferns, vol. i., p. 39Native Flowers and Ferns, vol. i., p. 26Chapter 5Sex, Drugs and Feminism: The Punk Adventures of Kathy AckerCollin CheungIntroductionBorn in 1948, Kathy Acker became one of the most influential American writers in her generation. The topics of her writings pioneered the way for the punk movement that emerged in the mid-1970s. Acker’s writing style distinguished herself from other postmodernist writers at the time. One of her most notable techniques, which some would consider plagiarism, was to lift texts from other authors and distort them to contain a new context, whether it be altering the text or adding new text to it. To be more polite, this technique could also be called appropriation or sampling. Acker challenged traditions and expectations through appropriating past texts. Another reason Acker’s writing is impressively unique is that she perfectly mixes her personal identity with her fictitious characters. This made her writing structure completely complex for “if she infuses too much of the personal, it becomes autobiography; if she relies too much on simple narrative, it becomes mundane”.2 In any of her writings, you can definitely see a part of Acker in her characters. One of the main topics for her writing has always been sexuality. She would take her personal experience from working in the sex industry and apply it to her work, generally in a political way.4 Her goal was to disrupt society’s expectations for women by bringing light to taboo topics such as the female sexual experience. This goal will become a main tenet in punk feminism for years to come.Acker’s WorksRip-Off Red, Girl Detective was the first novel Acker wrote, but it was only published posthumously. The cover of the book is a photo of Acker with the New York skyline.3 Rip-Off Red was a “pornographic mystery story” that examines the nature of desire and love in female sexuality. The story contains a tremendous amount of sex, explicit language, and homoerotic experiences. The novel begins with the protagonist having sex with her husband, but it eventually leads to her having sex with different female lovers on multiple occasions.8 Rip-Off Red is an attack on social institutions, specifically the norms of family and society. Acker explores the notion of desire, love, and female sexual experience.12The Childlike Life of the Black Tarantulawas published in 1973 as her debut novel. The original book cover was designed by Leandro Katz, an Argentinian writer, visual artist, and filmmaker. Instead of using metaphors and allusions as most other authors do, Acker lifts texts from other authors to combine with her own passages. This radical style is exhibited in this novel, as she appropriated texts from authors, William Butler Yeats and Marquis de Sade. This book discusses female sexuality without the traditional sense of poise and rationality.1Instead, she examines it with the use of vulgar language and explicitly detailed descriptions. Similarly, to most of her other books, this novel contained a tremendous amount of sex and death; however, since this was the first published book of Acker, Black Tarantula actually set the standard for the rest of her following novels.The InterviewThe primary source comes from an unexpurgated transcript of the interview “Devoured by Myths” between Kathy Acker and Sylvère Lotringer.2 Lotringer is a literary critic, cultural theorist, and editor. His childhood was full of non-traditional thinking as he was born in Paris during the German occupation. He describes himself as a “foreign agent provocateur.” This is one of the reasons why one of his major interests is in “alternative social movements that challenge current power relations”, which also explains his relation to Kathy Acker and the punk feminist movement.4 The general audience for the interview were likely open-minded thinkers that were also interested in alternative social movements.6Devoured By Myths: The Unexpurgated Interview With Sylvère Lotringer and Kathy AckerLotringer: Before I met you, I had heard of that writer called the Black Tarantula.3 I was very intrigued. I must say I had a visual picture that was quite different from what I discovered. Why did you take that name?Acker: I was living in ‘Frisco with Peter – Peter Gordon – in the Haight-Ashbury section right after the hippy period.3 The section became a very whoppy town for about two years, and then it became gay and started to spruce up.5 There was a wonderful theater group that used to be the Cockettes, and right before I came to San Francisco, in the early seventies, changed to the Angels of Light.7 Some of the Angels of Light lived up the street from us, and I became friendly with them. According to the guide, every bar at the time was gay, but it’s not quite true. It was this ambience in which everyone was sort of androgynous. You weren’t gay, you weren’t straight, it was very loose. And everybody changed their names, everybody wore makeup, everybody dressed up all the time. 9Lotringer: Even Peter?Acker: Peter enjoyed watching. Peter’s eyes got very big at all this. I would go up the street for these orgies. Peter never came. I remember I had a girlfriend for a time, Vanessa, who used to sing with Prissy Condition.3 Vanessa was this beautiful, beautiful black girl, and she would come in and sort of whop Peter around. She would say, “I’m gonna fuck your girlfriend now,” and Peter would just giggle. He didn’t know what else to do! Ah, Vanessa was something. And so everyone changed their names. I was writing, but I didn’t want to make a thing about it, you know; it was as if I had two lives. I hang around them and also I was a writer. So I made up as tore of name for myself, and that name was Rip-Off Red. And I wrote a novel at that point, Rip-Off Red Girl Detective, which is the first novel I’ve ever written.7 Very luckily it has never been published. It was a pornographic mystery story, and it was supposed to earn me lots of money (in my very deluded brain).Lotringer: How old were you then?Acker: When I wrote Tarantula, I was twenty-three.5 So I was around twenty-two. Where did I write The Black Tarantula? Oh, memory, it gets everything mixed up. I definitely was with Peter when I wrote Rip-Off Red. And we were in ‘Frisco. Before that I was doing The Black Tarantula down in San Diego. I was the Black Tarantula before I was Rip-Off Red.13 So there goes that apocryphal story. [laughs]Lotringer: Why the Black Tarantula?Acker: I don’t remember. I honestly don’t. I like it. I like tarantulas in those days, and I probably like them now. Mexican kids keep them as pets. And they’re really, like, sensual… they’re really soft and furry. Everyone thinks they’re horrible but they’re not terribly dangerous. The worst they do is sting like a bee.Lotringer: That was quite a punk name…Acker: Yea, but this was way before punk. I guess I was kind of punk.3 I wasn’t a very good hippy. We just liked the Velvet Underground – we didn’t have anyone really to like in those days.5 Well, I sort of felt like a hippy, I mean I eat healthy food, but I never really was into free love. I am just not that loose. And play those days, the men really had all the power, all they did is to get these women pregnant. It wasn’t really much fun, you end up with five babies and no boyfriend7Collin is a first-year student at Wake Forest University. He wants to major in Biology and is very excited for the next four years at Wake!Hardin, Michael. Review of Review of Rip-off Red, Girl Detective and the Burning Bombing of America: The Destruction of the U. S., , ; Essential Acker: The Selected Writings of Kathy Acker, , Amy Scholder, by Kathy Acker, Amy Scholder, and Dennis Cooper. Modern Language Studies 33, no. 1/2 (2003): 95–98. https://doi.org/10.2307/3195312.Scholder, Amy. Essential Acker. (New York: Grove Press, 2002).Presumably, the background is of the Twin TowersOne of the women the protagonist has sex with is the mother of another female lover.Hardin, Michael. Review of Review of Rip-off Red, Girl Detective and the Burning Bombing of America: The Destruction of the U. S., , ; Essential Acker: The Selected Writings of Kathy Acker, , Amy Scholder, by Kathy Acker, Amy Scholder, and Dennis Cooper. Modern Language Studies 33, no. 1/2 (2003): 95–98. https://doi.org/10.2307/3195312. Eye on Design. “Exploring the Radical Feminist Texts of Kathy Acker, One Book Design at a Time,” May 23, 2019. https://eyeondesign.aiga.org/exploring-the-radical-feminist-texts-of-kathy-acker-one-book-design-at-a-time/.Scribd. “Devoured by Myths.” Accessed November 18, 2019. https://www.scribd.com/doc/280589299/Devoured-by-Myths.“Sylvère Lotringer - The European Graduate School.” Accessed November 18, 2019. https://egs.edu/faculty/sylv%C3%A8re-lotringer; Lotringer and Acker were also close friends and sexual partners. Livingstone, Josephine. “What Does Kathy Acker Deserve?” The New Republic, September 14, 2017. https://newrepublic.com/article/144803/kathy-acker-deserve.These people likely knew about Acker and her writing or at the very least, would take her ideas and opinions seriously.The nickname is a reference to her debut novel, The Childlike Life of the Black TarantulaSan Francisco. Peter Gordon is a composer and experimental musician. He and Kathy married in 1976, but they eventually divorced. IMDb. “Peter Gordon.” Accessed November 18, 2019. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0330518/bio. Gordon met Acker in San Diego in ’72. She accompanied him and a friend on a cross-country drive to New York. After the drive, they lived together for seven years. Baines, Josh. “Stream Two Unheard Tracks by New York Disco Legends Peter Gordon and David Van Tieghem.” Vice (blog), November 23, 2016. https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/d7jqez/peter-gordon-david-van-tieghem-unheard-tracks-stream. Haight-Ashbury is a neighborhood in San Francisco known as the “hippie counterculture district” of the 60s. “The Summer of Love” of 1967 brought over 100,000 people to the neighborhood for a psychedelic period of free-thinking, creative expression, free love, drugs, and food. Moorehead, Karlin. “Haight-Ashbury: The Hippie Epicenter.” Groovy History. Accessed November 18, 2019. https://groovyhistory.com/haight-ashbury-the-hippie-epicenter.Whoppy, or whoopee, is “used to express exuberance”. It is also used to denote fun or merrymaking, sometimes sexually. “Definition of WHOOPEE.” Accessed November 18, 2019. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/whoopee.The Cockettes were an ensemble of hippie women, gay men, and babies who performed midnight musicals at the Palace Theater in North Beach. Their last performance was in the fall of 1972. They were major influences for the glitter rock era of David Bowie and Elton John. They also influenced The Rocky Horror Picture Show. The Cockettes. “History.” Accessed November 18, 2019. https://www.cockettes.com/history/. The Angels of Light were a breakout group from the Cockettes as a reaction for the Cockettes' perceived commercialization. The Angels were a theater group that formed in early 1971 and gave free shows in local theaters. “ANGELS OF LIGHT | Wild Life Archive.” Accessed November 18, 2019. https://wildlifearchive.org/angels-of-light/.This highlights the immense disconnect from societal standards of the “punk feminist” scene at the time. No matter the gender, race, or sexuality, everyone participated in becoming a “different” person for the night.I could not find any available information on the internet about Prissy Condition or a Vanessa in connection with Kathy Acker. I have searched multiple databases without finding any evidence for either one. Presumably, Vanessa was the singer in this small band called Prissy Condition.Rip-Off Red is written in a journal-like fashion as it is broken up by dates. It begins on April 20th with a description of the protagonist, Rip Off Red. In this description, one can see how Acker infuses her personal experiences into her characters. The novel starts with her having sex with her husband Peter. This goes on for a couple of pages. Afterwards, she masturbates on a plane heading to New York, has sex with a grocery boy, and a female lover named Sally Spitz. This was only the first few pages of the novel. Acker, Kathy. Rip-Off Red, Girl Detective. (New York: Grove Press, 2002).Similar to Rip-Off Red, The Black Tarantula also separates the passages by dates; this time, it begins in July 1973. This novel continues with the high quantity and very detailed descriptions of sex. A different protagonist than Rip Off Red goes on a sex spree with multiple unnamed lovers, both men and women. I find Tarantula to be different than Rip-Off Red in the way that the latter contains more dialogue, whereas Tarantula contains more narration and personal thoughts of the protagonist. Acker, Kathy. The Childlike Life of the Black Tarantula. (New York: Printed Matter Inc., 1978).She started The Black Tarantula before Rip Off Red. However, she finished the latter in San Francisco before finishing and publishing Tarantula in 1973. Rip Off Red remained unpublished for more than twenty-five years.Acker has always been the icon for “punk feminism” even before it existed.The Velvet Underground was a rock & roll band from that formed in 1964. They performed until 1973 when they took a twenty-year hiatus. The band was known for their attempt to integrate the avant-garde with rock. They are one of the most influential bands in rock, underground, experimental, and alternative music – the cornerstones for the punk movement. AllMusic. “The Velvet Underground | Biography & History.” Accessed November 18, 2019. https://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-velvet-underground-mn0000840402/biography.The norm of shotgun marriage has been gradually disappearing since 1969. The events that Acker is recounting in the interview takes place around the same year. Shotgun marriage rates were decreasing inversely to the use of reproductive technology. The rate of out-of-wedlock births increased by hundreds of thousands in a span of ten years. Prior to the late 60s, most out-of-wedlock births were followed by a shotgun marriage i.e. The father is forced to marry the mother to create a traditional family environment for the child. With the decline of shotgun marriages, many women were left with children but no partner to help support them. Yellen, George A. Akerlof and Janet L. “An Analysis of Out-of-Wedlock Births in the United States.” Brookings (blog), August 1, 1996. https://www.brookings.edu/research/an-analysis-of-out-of-wedlock-births-in-the-united-states/.PK
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